async_hooks: minor refactor to callback invocation

Re-use the `init` function wherever possible, and move
`try { … } catch` blocks that result in fatal errors to a larger
scope.

Also make the argument order for `init()` consistent in the codebase.

PR-URL: https://github.com/nodejs/node/pull/13419


Reviewed-By: Trevor Norris <trev.norris@gmail.com>
Reviewed-By: Andreas Madsen <amwebdk@gmail.com>
Reviewed-By: Refael Ackermann <refack@gmail.com>