[libc++] Add a lightweight overridable assertion handler

This patch adds a lightweight assertion handler mechanism that can be
overriden at link-time in a fashion similar to `operator new`.

This is a third take on https://llvm.org/D121123 (which allowed customizing
the assertion handler at compile-time), and https://llvm.org/D119969
(which allowed customizing the assertion handler at runtime only).

This approach is, I think, the best of all three explored approaches.
Indeed, replacing the assertion handler in user code is ergonomic,
yet we retain the ability to provide a custom assertion handler when
deploying to older platforms that don't have a default handler in
the dylib.

As-is, this patch provides a pretty good amount of backwards compatibility
with the previous debug mode:

- Code that used to set _LIBCPP_DEBUG=0 in order to get basic assertions
  in their code will still get basic assertions out of the box, but
  those assertions will be using the new assertion handler support.
- Code that was p...