# Working with the Yocto Project Kernel

## Introduction

This chapter describes how to accomplish tasks involving a kernel's tree structure. The information is designed to help the developer that wants to modify the Yocto Project kernel and contribute changes upstream to the Yocto Project. The information covers the following:

- Tree construction

- Build strategies

- Workflow examples

## Tree Construction

This section describes construction of the Yocto Project kernel source repositories as accomplished by the Yocto Project team to create kernel repositories. These kernel repositories are found under the heading "Yocto Linux Kernel" at &YOCTO_GIT_URL;/cgit.cgi and can be shipped as part of a Yocto Project release. The team creates these repositories by compiling and executing the set of feature descriptions for every BSP/feature in the product. Those feature descriptions list all necessary patches, configuration, branching, tagging and feature divisions found in a kernel. Thus, the Yocto Project kernel repository (or tree) is built.

The existence of this tree allows you to access and clone a particular Yocto Project kernel repository and use it to build images based on their configurations and features.

You can find the files used to describe all the valid features and BSPs in the Yocto Project kernel in any clone of the Yocto Project kernel source repository Git tree. For example, the following command clones the Yocto Project baseline kernel that branched off of `linux.org` version 3.4:

         $ git clone git://git.yoctoproject.org/linux-yocto-3.4

For another example of how to set up a local Git repository of the Yocto Project kernel files, see the "Yocto Project Kernel" bulleted item in the Yocto Project Development Manual.

Once you have cloned the kernel Git repository on your local machine, you can switch to the `meta` branch within the repository. Here is an example that assumes the local Git repository for the kernel is in a top-level directory named `linux-yocto-3.4`:

         $ cd ~/linux-yocto-3.4
         $ git checkout -b meta origin/meta

Once you have checked out and switched to the `meta` branch, you can see a snapshot of all the kernel configuration and feature descriptions that are used to build that particular kernel repository. These descriptions are in the form of `.scc` files.

You should realize, however, that browsing your local kernel repository for feature descriptions and patches is not an effective way to determine what is in a particular kernel branch. Instead, you should use Git directly to discover the changes in a branch. Using Git is an efficient and flexible way to inspect changes to the kernel. For examples showing how to use Git to inspect kernel commits, see the following sections in this chapter.

Ground up reconstruction of the complete kernel tree is an action only taken by the Yocto Project team during an active development cycle. When you create a clone of the kernel Git repository, you are simply making it efficiently available for building and development.

The following steps describe what happens when the Yocto Project Team constructs the Yocto Project kernel source Git repository (or tree) found at given the introduction of a new top-level kernel feature or BSP. These are the actions that effectively create the tree that includes the new feature, patch or BSP:

1. A top-level kernel feature is passed to the kernel build subsystem. Normally, this feature is a BSP for a particular kernel type.

2. The file that describes the top-level feature is located by searching these system directories:

   - The in-tree kernel-cache directories, which are located in `meta/cfg/kernel-cache`

   - Areas pointed to by `SRC_URI` statements found in recipes

   For a typical build, the target of the search is a feature description in an `.scc` file whose name follows this format:

            <bsp_name>-<kernel_type>.scc

3. Once located, the feature description is either compiled into a simple script of actions, or into an existing equivalent script that is already part of the shipped kernel.

4. Extra features are appended to the top-level feature description. These features can come from the `KERNEL_FEATURES` variable in recipes.

5. Each extra feature is located, compiled and appended to the script as described in step three.

6. The script is executed to produce a series of `meta-*` directories. These directories are descriptions of all the branches, tags, patches and configurations that need to be applied to the base Git repository to completely create the source (build) branch for the new BSP or feature.

7. The base repository is cloned, and the actions listed in the `meta-*` directories are applied to the tree.

8. The Git repository is left with the desired branch checked out and any required branching, patching and tagging has been performed.

The kernel tree is now ready for developer consumption to be locally cloned, configured, and built into a Yocto Project kernel specific to some target hardware.

The generated `meta-*` directories add to the kernel as shipped with the Yocto Project release. Any add-ons and configuration data are applied to the end of an existing branch. The full repository generation that is found in the official Yocto Project kernel repositories at http://git.yoctoproject.org/cgit.cgi is the combination of all supported boards and configurations.

The technique the Yocto Project team uses is flexible and allows for seamless blending of an immutable history with additional patches specific to a deployment. Any additions to the kernel become an integrated part of the branches.

## Build Strategy

Once a local Git repository of the Yocto Project kernel exists on a development system, you can consider the compilation phase of kernel development - building a kernel image. Some prerequisites exist that are validated by the build process before compilation starts:

- The `SRC_URI` points to the kernel Git repository.

- A BSP build branch exists. This branch has the following form:

           <kernel_type>/<bsp_name>

The OpenEmbedded build system makes sure these conditions exist before attempting compilation. Other means, however, do exist, such as as bootstrapping a BSP, see the "Workflow Examples".

Before building a kernel, the build process verifies the tree and configures the kernel by processing all of the configuration "fragments" specified by feature descriptions in the `.scc` files. As the features are compiled, associated kernel configuration fragments are noted and recorded in the `meta-*` series of directories in their compilation order. The fragments are migrated, pre-processed and passed to the Linux Kernel Configuration subsystem (`lkc`) as raw input in the form of a `.config` file. The `lkc` uses its own internal dependency constraints to do the final processing of that information and generates the final `.config` file that is used during compilation.

Using the board's architecture and other relevant values from the board's template, kernel compilation is started and a kernel image is produced.

The other thing that you notice once you configure a kernel is that the build process generates a build tree that is separate from your kernel's local Git source repository tree. This build tree has a name that uses the following form, where `${MACHINE}` is the metadata name of the machine (BSP) and "kernel_type" is one of the Yocto Project supported kernel types (e.g. "standard"):

         linux-${MACHINE}-<kernel_type>-build

The existing support in the `kernel.org` tree achieves this default functionality.

This behavior means that all the generated files for a particular machine or BSP are now in the build tree directory. The files include the final `.config` file, all the `.o` files, the `.a` files, and so forth. Since each machine or BSP has its own separate build directory in its own separate branch of the Git repository, you can easily switch between different builds.

## Workflow Examples

As previously noted, the Yocto Project kernel has built-in Git integration. However, these utilities are not the only way to work with the kernel repository. The Yocto Project has not made changes to Git or to other tools that would invalidate alternate workflows. Additionally, the way the kernel repository is constructed results in using only core Git functionality, thus allowing any number of tools or front ends to use the resulting tree.

This section contains several workflow examples. Many of the examples use Git commands. You can find Git documentation at . You can find a simple overview of using Git with the Yocto Project in the "Git" section of the Yocto Project Development Manual.

### Change Inspection: Changes/Commits

A common question when working with a kernel is: "What changes have been applied to this tree?"

In projects that have a collection of directories that contain patches to the kernel, it is possible to inspect or "grep" the contents of the directories to get a general feel for the changes. This sort of patch inspection is not an efficient way to determine what has been done to the kernel. The reason it is inefficient is because there are many optional patches that are selected based on the kernel type and the feature description. Additionally, patches could exist in directories that are not included in the search.

A more efficient way to determine what has changed in the branch is to use Git and inspect or search the kernel tree. This method gives you a full view of not only the source code modifications, but also provides the reasons for the changes.

#### What Changed in a Kernel?

Following are a few examples that show how to use Git commands to examine changes. Because Git repositories in the Yocto Project do not break existing Git functionality, and because there exists many permutations of these types of Git commands, many methods exist by which you can discover changes.

In the following examples, unless you provide a commit range, `kernel.org` history is blended with Yocto Project kernel changes. You can form ranges by using branch names from the kernel tree as the upper and lower commit markers with the Git commands. You can see the branch names through the web interface to the Yocto Project source repositories at . For example, the branch names for the `linux-yocto-3.4` kernel repository can be seen at .

To see a full range of the changes, use the `git whatchanged` command and specify a commit range for the branch (`<commit>..<commit>`).

Here is an example that looks at what has changed in the `emenlow` branch of the `linux-yocto-3.4` kernel. The lower commit range is the commit associated with the `standard/base` branch, while the upper commit range is the commit associated with the `standard/emenlow` branch.

         $ git whatchanged origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

To see a summary of changes use the `git log` command. Here is an example using the same branches:

         $ git log --oneline origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

The `git log` output might be more useful than the `git whatchanged` as you get a short, one-line summary of each change and not the entire commit.

If you want to see code differences associated with all the changes, use the `git diff` command. Here is an example:

         $ git diff origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

You can see the commit log messages and the text differences using the `git show` command: Here is an example:

         $ git show origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

You can create individual patches for each change by using the `git format-patch` command. Here is an example that that creates patch files for each commit and places them in your `Documents` directory:

         $ git format-patch -o $HOME/Documents origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

#### Show a Particular Feature or Branch Change

Developers use tags in the Yocto Project kernel tree to divide changes for significant features or branches. Once you know a particular tag, you can use Git commands to show changes associated with the tag and find the branches that contain the feature.

Because BSP branch, `kernel.org`, and feature tags are all present, there could be many tags.

The `git show <tag>` command shows changes that are tagged by a feature. Here is an example that shows changes tagged by the `systemtap` feature:

         $ git show systemtap

You can use the `git branch --contains <tag>` command to show the branches that contain a particular feature. This command shows the branches that contain the `systemtap` feature:

         $ git branch --contains systemtap

You can use many other comparisons to isolate BSP and kernel changes. For example, you can compare against `kernel.org` tags such as the `v3.4` tag.

### Development: Saving Kernel Modifications

Another common operation is to build a BSP supplied by the Yocto Project, make some changes, rebuild, and then test. Those local changes often need to be exported, shared or otherwise maintained.

Since the Yocto Project kernel source tree is backed by Git, this activity is much easier as compared to with previous releases. Because Git tracks file modifications, additions and deletions, it is easy to modify the code and later realize that you need to save the changes. It is also easy to determine what has changed. This method also provides many tools to commit, undo and export those modifications.

This section and its sub-sections, describe general application of Git's `push` and `pull` commands, which are used to get your changes upstream or source your code from an upstream repository. The Yocto Project provides scripts that help you work in a collaborative development environment. For information on these scripts, see the "Using Scripts to Push a Change Upstream and Request a Pull" and "Using Email to Submit a Patch" sections in the Yocto Project Development Manual.

There are many ways to save kernel modifications. The technique employed depends on the destination for the patches:

- Bulk storage

- Internal sharing either through patches or by using Git

- External submissions

- Exporting for integration into another Source Code Manager (SCM)

Because of the following list of issues, the destination of the patches also influences the method for gathering them:

- Bisectability

- Commit headers

- Division of subsystems for separate submission or review

#### Bulk Export

This section describes how you can "bulk" export changes that have not been separated or divided. This situation works well when you are simply storing patches outside of the kernel source repository, either permanently or temporarily, and you are not committing incremental changes during development.

This technique is not appropriate for full integration of upstream submission because changes are not properly divided and do not provide an avenue for per-change commit messages. Therefore, this example assumes that changes have not been committed incrementally during development and that you simply must gather and export them.

         # bulk export of ALL modifications without separation or division
         # of the changes

         $ git add .
         $ git commit -s -a -m <msg>
            or
         $ git commit -s -a # and interact with $EDITOR

The previous operations capture all the local changes in the project source tree in a single Git commit. And, that commit is also stored in the project's source tree.

Once the changes are exported, you can restore them manually using a template or through integration with the `default_kernel`.

#### Incremental/Planned Sharing

This section describes how to save modifications when you are making incremental commits or practicing planned sharing. The examples in this section assume that you have incrementally committed changes to the tree during development and now need to export them. The sections that follow describe how you can export your changes internally through either patches or by using Git commands.

During development, the following commands are of interest. For full Git documentation, refer to the Git documentation at .

         # edit a file
         $ vi <path>/file
         # stage the change
         $ git add <path>/file
         # commit the change
         $ git commit -s
         # remove a file
         $ git rm <path>/file
         # commit the change
         $ git commit -s

         ... etc.

Distributed development with Git is possible when you use a universally agreed-upon unique commit identifier (set by the creator of the commit) that maps to a specific change set with a specific parent. This identifier is created for you when you create a commit, and is re-created when you amend, alter or re-apply a commit. As an individual in isolation, this is of no interest. However, if you intend to share your tree with normal Git `push` and `pull` operations for distributed development, you should consider the ramifications of changing a commit that you have already shared with others.

Assuming that the changes have not been pushed upstream, or pulled into another repository, you can update both the commit content and commit messages associated with development by using the following commands:

         $ Git add <path>/file
         $ Git commit --amend
         $ Git rebase or Git rebase -i

Again, assuming that the changes have not been pushed upstream, and that no pending works-in-progress exist (use `git status` to check), then you can revert (undo) commits by using the following commands:

         # remove the commit, update working tree and remove all
         # traces of the change
         $ git reset --hard HEAD^
         # remove the commit, but leave the files changed and staged for re-commit
         $ git reset --soft HEAD^
         # remove the commit, leave file change, but not staged for commit
         $ git reset --mixed HEAD^

You can create branches, "cherry-pick" changes, or perform any number of Git operations until the commits are in good order for pushing upstream or for pull requests. After a `push` or `pull` command, commits are normally considered "permanent" and you should not modify them. If the commits need to be changed, you can incrementally do so with new commits. These practices follow standard Git workflow and the `kernel.org` best practices, which is recommended.

It is recommended to tag or branch before adding changes to a Yocto Project BSP or before creating a new one. The reason for this recommendation is because the branch or tag provides a reference point to facilitate locating and exporting local changes.

##### Exporting Changes Internally by Using Patches

This section describes how you can extract committed changes from a working directory by exporting them as patches. Once the changes have been extracted, you can use the patches for upstream submission, place them in a Yocto Project template for automatic kernel patching, or apply them in many other common uses.

This example shows how to create a directory with sequentially numbered patches. Once the directory is created, you can apply it to a repository using the `git am` command to reproduce the original commit and all the related information such as author, date, commit log, and so forth.

The new commit identifiers (ID) will be generated upon re-application. This action reflects that the commit is now applied to an underlying commit with a different ID.

         # <first-commit> can be a tag if one was created before development
         # began. It can also be the parent branch if a branch was created
         # before development began.

         $ git format-patch -o <dir> <first commit>..<last commit>

In other words:

         # Identify commits of interest.

         # If the tree was tagged before development
         $ git format-patch -o <save dir> <tag>

         # If no tags are available
         $ git format-patch -o <save dir> HEAD^  # last commit
         $ git format-patch -o <save dir> HEAD^^ # last 2 commits
         $ git whatchanged # identify last commit
         $ git format-patch -o <save dir> <commit id>
         $ git format-patch -o <save dir> <rev-list>

##### Exporting Changes Internally by Using Git

This section describes how you can export changes from a working directory by pushing the changes into a master repository or by making a pull request. Once you have pushed the changes to the master repository, you can then pull those same changes into a new kernel build at a later time.

Use this command form to push the changes:

         $ git push ssh://<master_server>/<path_to_repo>
            <local_branch>:<remote_branch>

For example, the following command pushes the changes from your local branch `yocto/standard/common-pc/base` to the remote branch with the same name in the master repository `//git.mycompany.com/pub/git/kernel-3.4`.

         $ git push ssh://git.mycompany.com/pub/git/kernel-3.4 \
            yocto/standard/common-pc/base:yocto/standard/common-pc/base

A pull request entails using the `git request-pull` command to compose an email to the maintainer requesting that a branch be pulled into the master repository, see for an example.

Other commands such as `git stash` or branching can also be used to save changes, but are not covered in this document.

#### Exporting Changes for External (Upstream) Submission

This section describes how to export changes for external upstream submission. If the patch series is large or the maintainer prefers to pull changes, you can submit these changes by using a pull request. However, it is common to send patches as an email series. This method allows easy review and integration of the changes.

Before sending patches for review be sure you understand the community standards for submitting and documenting changes and follow their best practices. For example, kernel patches should follow standards such as:

- Documentation/SubmittingPatches (in any linux kernel source tree)

The messages used to commit changes are a large part of these standards. Consequently, be sure that the headers for each commit have the required information. For information on how to follow the Yocto Project commit message standards, see the "How to Submit a Change" section in the Yocto Project Development Manual.

If the initial commits were not properly documented or do not meet those standards, you can re-base by using the `git rebase -i` command to manipulate the commits and get them into the required format. Other techniques such as branching and cherry-picking commits are also viable options.

Once you complete the commits, you can generate the email that sends the patches to the maintainer(s) or lists that review and integrate changes. The command `git send-email` is commonly used to ensure that patches are properly formatted for easy application and avoid mailer-induced patch damage.

The following is an example of dumping patches for external submission:

         # dump the last 4 commits
         $ git format-patch --thread -n -o ~/rr/ HEAD^^^^
         $ git send-email --compose --subject '[RFC 0/N] <patch series summary>' \
          --to foo@yoctoproject.org --to bar@yoctoproject.org \
          --cc list@yoctoproject.org  ~/rr
         # the editor is invoked for the 0/N patch, and when complete the entire
         # series is sent via email for review

#### Exporting Changes for Import into Another SCM

When you want to export changes for import into another Source Code Manager (SCM), you can use any of the previously discussed techniques. However, if the patches are manually applied to a secondary tree and then that tree is checked into the SCM, you can lose change information such as commit logs. This process is not recommended.

Many SCMs can directly import Git commits, or can translate Git patches so that information is not lost. Those facilities are SCM-dependent and you should use them whenever possible.

### Working with the Yocto Project Kernel in Another SCM

This section describes kernel development in an SCM other than Git, which is not the same as exporting changes to another SCM described earlier. For this scenario, you use the OpenEmbedded build system to develop the kernel in a different SCM. The following must be true for you to accomplish this:

- The delivered Yocto Project kernel must be exported into the second SCM.

- Development must be exported from that secondary SCM into a format that can be used by the OpenEmbedded build system.

#### Exporting the Delivered Kernel to the SCM

Depending on the SCM, it might be possible to export the entire Yocto Project kernel Git repository, branches and all, into a new environment. This method is preferred because it has the most flexibility and potential to maintain the meta data associated with each commit.

When a direct import mechanism is not available, it is still possible to export a branch (or series of branches) and check them into a new repository.

The following commands illustrate some of the steps you could use to import the `yocto/standard/common-pc/base` kernel into a secondary SCM:

         $ git checkout yocto/standard/common-pc/base
         $ cd .. ; echo linux/.git > .cvsignore
         $ cvs import -m "initial import" linux MY_COMPANY start

You could now relocate the CVS repository and use it in a centralized manner.

The following commands illustrate how you can condense and merge two BSPs into a second SCM:

         $ git checkout yocto/standard/common-pc/base
         $ git merge yocto/standard/common-pc-64/base
         # resolve any conflicts and commit them
         $ cd .. ; echo linux/.git > .cvsignore
         $ cvs import -m "initial import" linux MY_COMPANY start

#### Importing Changes for the Build

Once development has reached a suitable point in the second development environment, you need to export the changes as patches. To export them, place the changes in a recipe and automatically apply them to the kernel during patching.

### Creating a BSP Based on an Existing Similar BSP

This section overviews the process of creating a BSP based on an existing similar BSP. The information is introductory in nature and does not provide step-by-step examples. For detailed information on how to create a new BSP, see the "Creating a New BSP Layer Using the yocto-bsp Script" section in the Yocto Project Board Support Package (BSP) Developer's Guide, or see the Transcript:_creating_one_generic_Atom_BSP_from_another wiki page.

The basic steps you need to follow are:

1. Make sure you have set up a local Source Directory: You must create a local Source Directory by either creating a Git repository (recommended) or extracting a Yocto Project release tarball.

2. Choose an existing BSP available with the Yocto Project: Try to map your board features as closely to the features of a BSP that is already supported and exists in the Yocto Project. Starting with something as close as possible to your board makes developing your BSP easier. You can find all the BSPs that are supported and ship with the Yocto Project on the Yocto Project's Download page at .

3. Be sure you have the Base BSP: You need to either have a local Git repository of the base BSP set up or have downloaded and extracted the files from a release BSP tarball. Either method gives you access to the BSP source files.

4. Make a copy of the existing BSP, thus isolating your new BSP work: Copying the existing BSP file structure gives you a new area in which to work.

5. Make configuration and recipe changes to your new BSP: Configuration changes involve the files in the BSP's `conf` directory. Changes include creating a machine-specific configuration file and editing the `layer.conf` file. The configuration changes identify the kernel you will be using. Recipe changes include removing, modifying, or adding new recipe files that instruct the build process on what features to include in the image.

6. Prepare for the build: Before you actually initiate the build, you need to set up the build environment by sourcing the environment initialization script. After setting up the environment, you need to make some build configuration changes to the `local.conf` and `bblayers.conf` files.

7. Build the image: The OpenEmbedded build system uses BitBake to create the image. You need to decide on the type of image you are going to build (e.g. minimal, base, core, sato, and so forth) and then start the build using the `bitbake` command.

### "-dirty" String

If kernel images are being built with "-dirty" on the end of the version string, this simply means that modifications in the source directory have not been committed.

         $ git status

You can use the above Git command to report modified, removed, or added files. You should commit those changes to the tree regardless of whether they will be saved, exported, or used. Once you commit the changes you need to rebuild the kernel.

To brute force pickup and commit all such pending changes, enter the following:

         $ git add .
         $ git commit -s -a -m "getting rid of -dirty"

Next, rebuild the kernel.