# Common Tasks

This chapter presents several common tasks you perform when you work with the Yocto Project Linux kernel. These tasks include preparing a layer, modifying an existing recipe, iterative development, working with your own sources, and incorporating out-of-tree modules.

The examples presented in this chapter work with the Yocto Project 1.2.2 Release and forward.

## Creating and Preparing a Layer

If you are going to be modifying kernel recipes, it is recommended that you create and prepare your own layer in which to do your work. Your layer contains its own BitBake append files (`.bbappend`) and provides a convenient mechanism to create your own recipe files (`.bb`). For details on how to create and work with layers, see the following sections in the Yocto Project Development Manual:

- "Understanding and Creating Layers" for general information on layers and how to create layers.

- "Set Up Your Layer for the Build" for specific instructions on setting up a layer for kernel development.

## Modifying an Existing Recipe

In many cases, you can customize an existing linux-yocto recipe to meet the needs of your project. Each release of the Yocto Project provides a few Linux kernel recipes from which you can choose. These are located in the Source Directory in `meta/recipes-kernel/linux`.

Modifying an existing recipe can consist of the following:

- Creating the append file

- Applying patches

- Changing the configuration

Before modifying an existing recipe, be sure that you have created a minimal, custom layer from which you can work. See the "Creating and Preparing a Layer" section for some general resources. You can also see the "Set Up Your Layer for the Build" section of the Yocto Project Development Manual for a detailed example.

### Creating the Append File

You create this file in your custom layer. You also name it accordingly based on the linux-yocto recipe you are using. For example, if you are modifying the `meta/recipes-kernel/linux/linux-yocto_3.4.bb` recipe, the append file will typical be located as follows within your custom layer:

         <your-layer>/recipes-kernel/linux/linux-yocto_3.4.bbappend

The append file should initially contain the following text:

         FILESEXTRAPATHS := "${THISDIR}/${PN}"

The path `${` `THISDIR` `}/${` `PN` `}` expands to "linux-yocto" in the current directory for this example. If you add any new files that modify the kernel recipe and you have extended `FILESPATH` as described above, you must place the files in your layer in the following area:

         <your-layer>/recipes-kernel/linux/linux-yocto/

If you are working on a new machine Board Support Package (BSP), be sure to refer to the Yocto Project Board Support Package (BSP) Developer's Guide.

### Applying Patches

If you have a single patch or a small series of patches that you want to apply to the Linux kernel source, you can do so just as you would with any other recipe. You first copy the patches to the path added to `FILESEXTRAPATHS` in your `.bbappend` file as described in the previous section, and then reference them in `SRC_URI` statements.

For example, you can apply a three-patch series by adding the following lines to your linux-yocto `.bbappend` file in your layer:

         SRC_URI += "file://0001-first-change.patch"
         SRC_URI += "file://0002-first-change.patch"
         SRC_URI += "file://0003-first-change.patch"

The next time you run BitBake to build the Linux kernel, BitBake detects the change in the recipe and fetches and applies the patches before building the kernel.

For a detailed example showing how to patch the kernel, see the "Patching the Kernel" section in the Yocto Project Development Manual.

### Changing the Configuration

You can make wholesale or incremental changes to the Linux kernel `.config` file by including a `defconfig` or by specifying configuration fragments in the `SRC_URI`.

If you have a complete Linux kernel `.config` file you want to use, copy it to a directory named `files`, which must be in your layer's `recipes-kernel/linux` directory, and name the file "defconfig". Then, add the following lines to your linux-yocto `.bbappend` file in your layer:

         FILESEXTRAPATHS_prepend := "${THISDIR}/files:"
         SRC_URI += "file://defconfig"

The `SRC_URI` tells the build system how to search for the file, while the `FILESEXTRAPATHS` extends the `FILESPATH` variable (search directories) to include the `files` directory you created for the configuration changes.

Generally speaking, the preferred approach is to determine the incremental change you want to make and add that as a configuration fragment. For example, if you want to add support for a basic serial console, create a file named `8250.cfg` in the `files` directory with the following content (without indentation):

         CONFIG_SERIAL_8250=y
         CONFIG_SERIAL_8250_CONSOLE=y
         CONFIG_SERIAL_8250_PCI=y
         CONFIG_SERIAL_8250_NR_UARTS=4
         CONFIG_SERIAL_8250_RUNTIME_UARTS=4
         CONFIG_SERIAL_CORE=y
         CONFIG_SERIAL_CORE_CONSOLE=y

Next, include this configuration fragment and extend the `FILESPATH` variable in your `.bbappend` file:

         FILESEXTRAPATHS_prepend := "${THISDIR}/files:"
         SRC_URI += "file://8250.cfg"

The next time you run BitBake to build the Linux kernel, BitBake detects the change in the recipe and fetches and applies the new configuration before building the kernel.

For a detailed example showing how to configure the kernel, see the "Configuring the Kernel" section in the Yocto Project Development Manual.

## Using an Iterative Development Process

If you do not have existing patches or configuration files, you can iteratively generate them from within the BitBake build environment as described within this section. During an iterative workflow, running a previously completed BitBake task causes BitBake to invalidate the tasks that follow the completed task in the build sequence. Invalidated tasks rebuild the next time you run the build using BitBake.

As you read this section, be sure to substitute the name of your Linux kernel recipe for the term "linux-yocto".

### "-dirty" String

If kernel images are being built with "-dirty" on the end of the version string, this simply means that modifications in the source directory have not been committed.

         $ git status

You can use the above Git command to report modified, removed, or added files. You should commit those changes to the tree regardless of whether they will be saved, exported, or used. Once you commit the changes, you need to rebuild the kernel.

To force a pickup and commit of all such pending changes, enter the following:

         $ git add .
         $ git commit -s -a -m "getting rid of -dirty"

Next, rebuild the kernel.

### Generating Configuration Files

You can manipulate the `.config` file used to build a linux-yocto recipe with the `menuconfig` command as follows:

         $ bitbake linux-yocto -c menuconfig

This command starts the Linux kernel configuration tool, which allows you to prepare a new `.config` file for the build. When you exit the tool, be sure to save your changes at the prompt.

The resulting `.config` file is located in `${` `WORKDIR` `}` under the `linux-${` `MACHINE` `}-${`KTYPE`}-build` directory. You can use the entire `.config` file as the `defconfig` file as described in the "Changing the Configuration" section.

A better method is to create a configuration fragment using the differences between two configuration files: one previously created and saved, and one freshly created using the `menuconfig` tool.

To create a configuration fragment using this method, follow these steps:

1. Complete a build at least through the kernel configuration task as follows:

            $ bitbake linux-yocto -c kernel_configme -f

2. Copy and rename the resulting `.config` file (e.g. `config.orig`).

3. Run the `menuconfig` command:

            $ bitbake linux-yocto -c menuconfig

4. Prepare a configuration fragment based on the differences between the two files.

Ultimately, the configuration fragment file needs to be a list of Linux kernel `CONFIG_` assignments. It cannot be in `diff` format. Here is an example of a command that creates your configuration fragment file. Regardless of the exact command you use, plan on reviewing the output as you can usually remove some of the defaults:

         $ diff -Nurp config.orig .config | sed -n "s/^\+//p" > frag.cfg

See the "Changing the Configuration" section for information on how to use the output as a configuration fragment.

You can also use this method to create configuration fragments for a BSP. See the "BSP Descriptions" section for more information.

The kernel tools also provide configuration validation. You can use these tools to produce warnings for when a requested configuration does not appear in the final `.config` file or when you override a policy configuration in a hardware configuration fragment. Here is an example with some sample output of the command that runs these tools:

         $ bitbake linux-yocto -c kernel_configcheck -f

         ...

         NOTE: validating kernel configuration
         This BSP sets 3 invalid/obsolete kernel options.
         These config options are not offered anywhere within this kernel.
         The full list can be found in your kernel src dir at:
         meta/cfg/standard/mybsp/invalid.cfg

         This BSP sets 21 kernel options that are possibly non-hardware related.
         The full list can be found in your kernel src dir at:
         meta/cfg/standard/mybsp/specified_non_hdw.cfg

         WARNING: There were 2 hardware options requested that do not
                  have a corresponding value present in the final ".config" file.
                  This probably means you are not't getting the config you wanted.
                  The full list can be found in your kernel src dir at:
                  meta/cfg/standard/mybsp/mismatch.cfg

The output describes the various problems that you can encounter along with where to find the offending configuration items. You can use the information in the logs to adjust your configuration files and then repeat the `kernel_configme` and `kernel_configcheck` commands until they produce no warnings.

For more information on how to use the `menuconfig` tool, see the "Using `menuconfig`" section in the Yocto Project Development Manual.

### Modifying Source Code

You can experiment with source code changes and create a simple patch without leaving the BitBake environment. To get started, be sure to complete a build at least through the kernel configuration task:

         $ bitbake linux-yocto -c kernel_configme -f

Taking this step ensures you have the sources prepared and the configuration completed. You can find the sources in the `${` `WORKDIR` `}/linux` directory.

You can edit the sources as you would any other Linux source tree. However, keep in mind that you will lose changes if you trigger the `fetch` task for the recipe. You can avoid triggering this task by not issuing BitBake's `cleanall`, `cleansstate`, or forced `fetch` commands. Also, do not modify the recipe itself while working with temporary changes or BitBake might run the `fetch` command depending on the changes to the recipe.

To test your temporary changes, instruct BitBake to run the `compile` again. The `-f` option forces the command to run even though BitBake might think it has already done so:

         $ bitbake linux-yocto -c compile -f

If the compile fails, you can update the sources and repeat the `compile`. Once compilation is successful, you can inspect and test the resulting build (i.e. kernel, modules, and so forth) from the Build Directory:

         ${WORKDIR}/linux-${MACHINE}-${KTYPE}-build

Alternatively, you can run the `deploy` command to place the kernel image in the `tmp/deploy/images` directory:

    	$ bitbake linux-yocto -c deploy

And, of course, you can perform the remaining installation and packaging steps by issuing:

    	$ bitbake linux-yocto

For rapid iterative development, the edit-compile-repeat loop described in this section is preferable to rebuilding the entire recipe because the installation and packaging tasks are very time consuming.

Once you are satisfied with your source code modifications, you can make them permanent by generating patches and applying them to the `SRC_URI` statement as described in section "Applying Patches" section. If you are not familiar with generating patches, refer to the "Creating the Patch" section in the Yocto Project Development Manual.

## Working With Your Own Sources

If you cannot work with one of the Linux kernel versions supported by existing linux-yocto recipes, you can still make use of the Yocto Project Linux kernel tooling by working with your own sources. When you use your own sources, you will not be able to leverage the existing kernel Metadata and stabilization work of the linux-yocto sources. However, you will be able to manage your own Metadata in the same format as the linux-yocto sources. Maintaining format compatibility facilitates converging with linux-yocto on a future, mutually-supported kernel version.

To help you use your own sources, the Yocto Project provides a linux-yocto custom recipe (`linux-yocto-custom.bb`) that uses `kernel.org` sources and the Yocto Project Linux kernel tools for managing kernel Metadata. You can find this recipe in the `poky` Git repository of the Yocto Project Source Repository at:

         poky/meta-skeleton/recipes-kernel/linux/linux-yocto-custom.bb

Here are some basic steps you can use to work with your own sources:

1. Copy the `linux-yocto-custom.bb` recipe to your layer and give it a meaningful name. The name should include the version of the Linux kernel you are using (e.g. `linux-yocto-myproject_3.5.bb`, where "3.5" is the base version of the Linux kernel with which you would be working).

2. In the same directory inside your layer, create a matching directory to store your patches and configuration files (e.g. `linux-yocto-myproject`).

3. Edit the following variables in your recipe as appropriate for your project:

   - `SRC_URI`: The `SRC_URI` should be a Git repository that uses one of the supported Git fetcher protocols (i.e. `file`, `git`, `http`, and so forth). The skeleton recipe provides an example `SRC_URI` as a syntax reference.

   - `LINUX_VERSION`: The Linux kernel version you are using (e.g. "3.4").

   - `LINUX_VERSION_EXTENSION`: The Linux kernel `CONFIG_LOCALVERSION` that is compiled into the resulting kernel and visible through the `uname` command.

   - `SRCREV`: The commit ID from which you want to build.

   - `PR`: Treat this variable the same as you would in any other recipe. Increment the variable to indicate to the OpenEmbedded build system that the recipe has changed.

   - `PV`: The default `PV` assignment is typically adequate. It combines the `LINUX_VERSION` with the Source Control Manager (SCM) revision as derived from the `SRCPV` variable. The combined results are a string with the following form:

              3.4.11+git1+68a635bf8dfb64b02263c1ac80c948647cc76d5f_1+218bd8d2022b9852c60d32f0d770931e3cf343e2

     While lengthy, the extra verbosity in `PV` helps ensure you are using the exact sources from which you intend to build.

   - `COMPATIBLE_MACHINE`: A list of the machines supported by your new recipe. This variable in the example recipe is set by default to a regular expression that matches only the empty string, "(^$)". This default setting triggers an explicit build failure. You must change it to match a list of the machines that your new recipe supports. For example, to support the `qemux86` and `qemux86-64` machines, use the following form:

              COMPATIBLE_MACHINE = "qemux86|qemux86-64"

4. Provide further customizations to your recipe as needed just as you would customize an existing linux-yocto recipe. See the "Modifying an Existing Recipe" section for information.

## Incorporating Out-of-Tree Modules

While it is always preferable to work with sources integrated into the Linux kernel sources, if you need an external kernel module, the `hello-mod.bb` recipe is available as a template from which you can create your own out-of-tree Linux kernel module recipe.

This template recipe is located in the `poky` Git repository of the Yocto Project Source Repository at:

         poky/meta-skeleton/recipes-kernel/hello-mod/hello-mod_0.1.bb

To get started, copy this recipe to your layer and give it a meaningful name (e.g. `mymodule_1.0.bb`). In the same directory, create a directory named `files` where you can store any source files, patches, or other files necessary for building the module that do not come with the sources. Finally, update the recipe as appropriate for the module. Typically you will need to set the following variables:

- `DESCRIPTION`

- `LICENSE*`

- `SRC_URI`

- `PV`

Depending on the build system used by the module sources, you might need to make some adjustments. For example, a typical module `Makefile` looks much like the one provided with the `hello-mod` template:

         obj-m := hello.o

         SRC := $(shell pwd)

         all:
             $(MAKE) -C $(KERNEL_SRC) M=$(SRC)

         modules_install:
             $(MAKE) -C $(KERNEL_SRC) M=$(SRC) modules_install
         ...

The important point to note here is the `KERNEL_SRC` variable. The class `module.bbclass` sets this variable, as well as the `KERNEL_PATH` variable to `${`STAGING_KERNEL_DIR`}` with the necessary Linux kernel build information to build modules. If your module `Makefile` uses a different variable, you might want to override the `do_compile()` step, or create a patch to the `Makefile` to work with the more typical `KERNEL_SRC` or `KERNEL_PATH` variables.

After you have prepared your recipe, you will likely want to include the module in your images. To do this, see the documentation for the following variables in the Yocto Project Reference Manual and set one of them as appropriate in your machine configuration file:

- `MACHINE_ESSENTIAL_EXTRA_RDEPENDS`

- `MACHINE_ESSENTIAL_EXTRA_RRECOMMENDS`

- `MACHINE_EXTRA_RDEPENDS`

- `MACHINE_EXTRA_RRECOMMENDS`

modules are often not required for boot and can be excluded from certain build configurations. The following allows for the most flexibility:

         MACHINE_EXTRA_RRECOMMENDS += "kernel-module-mymodule"

Where the value is derived by appending the module filename without the `.ko` extension to the string "kernel-module-".

Because the variable is `RRECOMMENDS` and not a `RDEPENDS` variable, the build will not fail if this module is not available to include in the image.

## Inspecting Changes and Commits

A common question when working with a kernel is: "What changes have been applied to this tree?" Rather than using "grep" across directories to see what has changed, you can use Git to inspect or search the kernel tree. Using Git is an efficient way to see what has changed in the tree.

### What Changed in a Kernel?

Following are a few examples that show how to use Git commands to examine changes. These examples are by no means the only way to see changes.

In the following examples, unless you provide a commit range, `kernel.org` history is blended with Yocto Project kernel changes. You can form ranges by using branch names from the kernel tree as the upper and lower commit markers with the Git commands. You can see the branch names through the web interface to the Yocto Project source repositories at .

To see a full range of the changes, use the `git whatchanged` command and specify a commit range for the branch (`<commit>..<commit>`).

Here is an example that looks at what has changed in the `emenlow` branch of the `linux-yocto-3.4` kernel. The lower commit range is the commit associated with the `standard/base` branch, while the upper commit range is the commit associated with the `standard/emenlow` branch.

         $ git whatchanged origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

To see short, one line summaries of changes use the `git log` command:

         $ git log --oneline origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

Use this command to see code differences for the changes:

         $ git diff origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

Use this command to see the commit log messages and the text differences:

         $ git show origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

Use this command to create individual patches for each change. Here is an example that that creates patch files for each commit and places them in your `Documents` directory:

         $ git format-patch -o $HOME/Documents origin/standard/base..origin/standard/emenlow

### Showing a Particular Feature or Branch Change

Tags in the Yocto Project kernel tree divide changes for significant features or branches. The `git show <tag>` command shows changes based on a tag. Here is an example that shows `systemtap` changes:

         $ git show systemtap

You can use the `git branch --contains <tag>` command to show the branches that contain a particular feature. This command shows the branches that contain the `systemtap` feature:

         $ git branch --contains systemtap