# Common Tasks

This chapter describes standard tasks such as adding new software packages, extending or customizing images, and porting work to new hardware (adding a new machine). The chapter also describes how to combine multiple versions of library files into a single image, how to handle a package name alias, and gives advice about how to make changes to the Yocto Project to achieve the best results.

## Understanding and Creating Layers

The OpenEmbedded build system supports organizing metadata into multiple layers. Layers allow you to isolate different types of customizations from each other. You might find it tempting to keep everything in one layer when working on a single project. However, the more modular you organize your metadata, the easier it is to cope with future changes.

To illustrate how layers are used to keep things modular, consider machine customizations. These types of customizations typically reside in a BSP Layer. Furthermore, the machine customizations should be isolated from recipes and metadata that support a new GUI environment, for example. This situation gives you a couple of layers: one for the machine configurations, and one for the GUI environment. It is important to understand, however, that the BSP layer can still make machine-specific additions to recipes within the GUI environment layer without polluting the GUI layer itself with those machine-specific changes. You can accomplish this through a recipe that is a BitBake append (`.bbappend`) file, which is described later in this section.

### Layers

The Source Directory contains several layers right out of the box. You can easily identify a layer in the Source Directory by its folder name. Folders that are layers begin with the string `meta`. For example, when you set up the Source Directory structure, you will see several layers: `meta`, `meta-hob`, `meta-skeleton`, `meta-yocto`, and `meta-yocto-bsp`. Each of these folders is a layer.

Furthermore, if you set up a local copy of the `meta-intel` Git repository and then explore that folder, you will discover many BSP layers within the `meta-intel` layer. For more information on BSP layers, see the "BSP Layers" section in the Yocto Project Board Support Package (BSP) Developer's Guide.

### Creating Your Own Layer

It is very easy to create your own layer to use with the OpenEmbedded build system. Follow these general steps to create your layer:

1. Check Existing Layers: Before creating a new layer, you should be sure someone has not already created a layer containing the metadata you need. You can see the `LayerIndex` for a list of layers from the OpenEmbedded community that can be used in the Yocto Project.

2. Create a Directory: Create the directory for your layer. Traditionally, prepend the name of the folder with the string `meta`. For example:

            meta-mylayer
            meta-GUI_xyz
            meta-mymachine

3. Create a Layer Configuration File: Inside your new layer folder, you need to create a `conf/layer.conf` file. It is easiest to take an existing layer configuration file and copy that to your layer's `conf` directory and then modify the file as needed.

   The `meta-yocto/conf/layer.conf` file demonstrates the required syntax:

            # We have a conf and classes directory, add to BBPATH
            BBPATH := "${LAYERDIR}:${BBPATH}"

            # We have recipes-* directories, add to BBFILES
            BBFILES := "${BBFILES} ${LAYERDIR}/recipes-*/*/*.bb \
                        ${LAYERDIR}/recipes-*/*/*.bbappend"

            BBFILE_COLLECTIONS += "yocto"
            BBFILE_PATTERN_yocto := "^${LAYERDIR}/"
            BBFILE_PRIORITY_yocto = "5"

   In the previous example, the recipes for the layers are added to `BBFILES`. The `BBFILE_COLLECTIONS` variable is then appended with the layer name. The `BBFILE_PATTERN` variable is set to a regular expression and is used to match files from `BBFILES` into a particular layer. In this case, immediate expansion of `LAYERDIR` sets `BBFILE_PATTERN` to the layer's path. The `BBFILE_PRIORITY` variable then assigns a priority to the layer. Applying priorities is useful in situations where the same package might appear in multiple layers and allows you to choose what layer should take precedence.

   Note the use of the `LAYERDIR` variable with the immediate expansion operator. The `LAYERDIR` variable expands to the directory of the current layer and requires the immediate expansion operator so that BitBake does not wait to expand the variable when it's parsing a different directory.

   Through the use of the `BBPATH` variable, BitBake locates `.bbclass` files, configuration files, and files that are included with `include` and `require` statements. For these cases, BitBake uses the first file with the matching name found in `BBPATH`. This is similar to the way the `PATH` variable is used for binaries. We recommend, therefore, that you use unique `.bbclass` and configuration file names in your custom layer.

4. Add Content: Depending on the type of layer, add the content. If the layer adds support for a machine, add the machine configuration in a `conf/machine/` file within the layer. If the layer adds distro policy, add the distro configuration in a `conf/distro/` file with the layer. If the layer introduces new recipes, put the recipes you need in `recipes-*` subdirectories within the layer.

   In order to be compliant with the Yocto Project, a layer must contain a README file.

To create layers that are easier to maintain, you should consider the following:

- Avoid "overlaying" entire recipes from other layers in your configuration. In other words, don't copy an entire recipe into your layer and then modify it. Use `.bbappend` files to override the parts of the recipe you need to modify.

- Avoid duplicating include files. Use `.bbappend` files for each recipe that uses an include file. Or, if you are introducing a new recipe that requires the included file, use the path relative to the original layer directory to refer to the file. For example, use `require recipes-core/somepackage/somefile.inc` instead of `require somefile.inc`. If you're finding you have to overlay the include file, it could indicate a deficiency in the include file in the layer to which it originally belongs. If this is the case, you need to address that deficiency instead of overlaying the include file. For example, consider how Qt 4 database support plug-ins are configured. The Source Directory does not have MySQL or PostgreSQL, however OpenEmbedded's layer `meta-oe` does. Consequently, `meta-oe` uses `.bbappend` files to modify the `QT_SQL_DRIVER_FLAGS` variable to enable the appropriate plugins. This variable was added to the `qt4.inc` include file in the Source Directory specifically to allow the `meta-oe` layer to be able to control which plugins are built.

We also recommend the following:

- Store custom layers in a Git repository that uses the `meta-<layer_name>` format.

- Clone the repository alongside other `meta` directories in the Source Directory.

Following these recommendations keeps your Source Directory and its configuration entirely inside the Yocto Project's core base.

### Enabling Your Layer

Before the OpenEmbedded build system can use your new layer, you need to enable it. To enable your layer, simply add your layer's path to the `BBLAYERS` variable in your `conf/bblayers.conf` file, which is found in the Build Directory. The following example shows how to enable a layer named `meta-mylayer`:

         LCONF_VERSION = "6"

         BBPATH = "${TOPDIR}"
         BBFILES ?= ""

         BBLAYERS ?= " \
           /path/to/poky/meta \
           /path/to/poky/meta-yocto \
           /path/to/poky/meta-yocto-bsp \
           /path/to/poky/meta-mylayer \
           "

BitBake parses each `conf/layer.conf` file as specified in the `BBLAYERS` variable within the `conf/bblayers.conf` file. During the processing of each `conf/layer.conf` file, BitBake adds the recipes, classes and configurations contained within the particular layer to the source directory.

Removing the `meta-yocto` layer exposes a bug for the current release of the Yocto Project. If for some reason you do remove this layer from the `bblayers.conf`, you must set the `LCONF_VERSION` variable to "5". See [YOCTO_#3176] for more information.

### Using .bbappend Files

Recipes used to append metadata to other recipes are called BitBake append files. BitBake append files use the `.bbappend` file type suffix, while the corresponding recipes to which metadata is being appended use the `.bb` file type suffix.

A `.bbappend` file allows your layer to make additions or changes to the content of another layer's recipe without having to copy the other recipe into your layer. Your `.bbappend` file resides in your layer, while the underlying `.bb` recipe file to which you are appending metadata resides in a different layer.

Append files files must have the same name as the corresponding recipe. For example, the append file `someapp_&DISTRO;.bbappend` must apply to `someapp_&DISTRO;.bb`. This means the original recipe and append file names are version number specific. If the corresponding recipe is renamed to update to a newer version, the underlying `.bbappend` file must be renamed as well. During the build process, BitBake displays an error on starting if it detects a `.bbappend` file that does not have a corresponding recipe with a matching name.

Being able to append information to an existing recipe not only avoids duplication, but also automatically applies recipe changes in a different layer to your layer. If you were copying recipes, you would have to manually merge changes as they occur.

As an example, consider the main formfactor recipe and a corresponding formfactor append file both from the Source Directory. Here is the main formfactor recipe, which is named `formfactor_0.0.bb` and located in the meta layer at `meta/recipes-bsp/formfactor`:

         DESCRIPTION = "Device formfactor information"
         SECTION = "base"
         LICENSE = "MIT"
         LIC_FILES_CHKSUM = "file://${COREBASE}/LICENSE;md5=3f40d7994397109285ec7b81fdeb3b58 \
                             file://${COREBASE}/meta/COPYING.MIT;md5=3da9cfbcb788c80a0384361b4de20420"
         PR = "r20"

         SRC_URI = "file://config file://machconfig"
         S = "${WORKDIR}"

         PACKAGE_ARCH = "${MACHINE_ARCH}"
         INHIBIT_DEFAULT_DEPS = "1"

         do_install() {
         	# Only install file if it has a contents
                 install -d ${D}${sysconfdir}/formfactor/
                 install -m 0644 ${S}/config ${D}${sysconfdir}/formfactor/
         	if [ -s "${S}/machconfig" ]; then
         	        install -m 0644 ${S}/machconfig ${D}${sysconfdir}/formfactor/
         	fi
         }

Here is the append file, which is named `formfactor_0.0.bbappend` and is from the Crown Bay BSP Layer named `meta-intel/meta-crownbay`. The file is in `recipes-bsp/formfactor`:

         FILESEXTRAPATHS_prepend := "${THISDIR}/${PN}:"

         PRINC := "${@int(PRINC) + 2}"

This example adds or overrides files in `SRC_URI` within a `.bbappend` by extending the path BitBake uses to search for files. The most reliable way to do this is by prepending the `FILESEXTRAPATHS` variable. For example, if you have your files in a directory that is named the same as your package (`PN`), you can add this directory by adding the following to your `.bbappend` file:

         FILESEXTRAPATHS_prepend := "${THISDIR}/${PN}:"

Using the immediate expansion assignment operator `:=` is important because of the reference to `THISDIR`. The trailing colon character is important as it ensures that items in the list remain colon-separated.

BitBake automatically defines the `THISDIR` variable. You should never set this variable yourself. Using `_prepend` ensures your path will be searched prior to other paths in the final list.

### Prioritizing Your Layer

Each layer is assigned a priority value. Priority values control which layer takes precedence if there are recipe files with the same name in multiple layers. For these cases, the recipe file from the layer with a higher priority number taking precedence. Priority values also affect the order in which multiple `.bbappend` files for the same recipe are applied. You can either specify the priority manually, or allow the build system to calculate it based on the layer's dependencies.

To specify the layer's priority manually, use the `BBFILE_PRIORITY` variable. For example:

         BBFILE_PRIORITY := "1"

It is possible for a recipe with a lower version number `PV` in a layer that has a higher priority to take precedence.

Also, the layer priority does not currently affect the precedence order of `.conf` or `.bbclass` files. Future versions of BitBake might address this.

### Managing Layers

You can use the BitBake layer management tool to provide a view into the structure of recipes across a multi-layer project. Being able to generate output that reports on configured layers with their paths and priorities and on `.bbappend` files and their applicable recipes can help to reveal potential problems.

Use the following form when running the layer management tool.

         $ bitbake-layers <command> [arguments]

The following list describes the available commands:

- `help:` Displays general help or help on a specified command.

- `show-layers:` Show the current configured layers.

- `show-recipes:` Lists available recipes and the layers that provide them.

- `show-overlayed:` Lists overlayed recipes. A recipe is overlayed when a recipe with the same name exists in another layer that has a higher layer priority.

- `show-appends:` Lists `.bbappend` files and the recipe files to which they apply.

- `flatten:` Flattens the layer configuration into a separate output directory. Flattening your layer configuration builds a "flattened" directory that contains the contents of all layers, with any overlayed recipes removed and any `.bbappend` files appended to the corresponding recipes. You might have to perform some manual cleanup of the flattened layer as follows:

  - Non-recipe files (such as patches) are overwritten. The flatten command shows a warning for these files.

  - Anything beyond the normal layer setup has been added to the `layer.conf` file. Only the lowest priority layer's `layer.conf` is used.

  - Overridden and appended items from `.bbappend` files need to be cleaned up. The contents of each `.bbappend` end up in the flattened recipe. However, if there are appended or changed variable values, you need to tidy these up yourself. Consider the following example. Here, the `bitbake-layers` command adds the line `#### bbappended ...` so that you know where the following lines originate:

             ...
             DESCRIPTION = "A useful utility"
             ...
             EXTRA_OECONF = "--enable-something"
             ...

             #### bbappended from meta-anotherlayer ####

             DESCRIPTION = "Customized utility"
             EXTRA_OECONF += "--enable-somethingelse"

    Ideally, you would tidy up these utilities as follows:

             ...
             DESCRIPTION = "Customized utility"
             ...
             EXTRA_OECONF = "--enable-something --enable-somethingelse"
             ...

## Customizing Images

You can customize images to satisfy particular requirements. This section describes several methods and provides guidelines for each.

### Customizing Images Using Custom .bb Files

One way to get additional software into an image is to create a custom image. The following example shows the form for the two lines you need:

         IMAGE_INSTALL = "packagegroup-core-x11-base package1 package2"

         inherit core-image

By creating a custom image, a developer has total control over the contents of the image. It is important to use the correct names of packages in the `IMAGE_INSTALL` variable. You must use the OpenEmbedded notation and not the Debian notation for the names (e.g. `eglibc-dev` instead of `libc6-dev`).

The other method for creating a custom image is to base it on an existing image. For example, if you want to create an image based on `core-image-sato` but add the additional package `strace` to the image, copy the `meta/recipes-sato/images/core-image-sato.bb` to a new `.bb` and add the following line to the end of the copy:

         IMAGE_INSTALL += "strace"

### Customizing Images Using Custom Package Groups

For complex custom images, the best approach is to create a custom package group recipe that is used to build the image or images. A good example of a package group recipe is `meta/recipes-core/packagegroups/packagegroup-core-boot.bb`. The `PACKAGES` variable lists the package group packages you wish to produce. `inherit packagegroup` sets appropriate default values and automatically adds `-dev` and `-dbg` complementary packages for every package specified in `PACKAGES`. Note that the inherit line should be towards the top of the recipe, certainly before you set `PACKAGES`. For each package you specify in `PACKAGES`, you can use `RDEPENDS` and `RRECOMMENDS` entries to provide a list of packages the parent task package should contain. Following is an example:

         DESCRIPTION = "My Custom Package Groups"

         inherit packagegroup

         PACKAGES = "\
             packagegroup-custom-apps \
             packagegroup-custom-tools \
             "

         RDEPENDS_packagegroup-custom-apps = "\
             dropbear \
             portmap \
             psplash"

         RDEPENDS_packagegroup-custom-tools = "\
             oprofile \
             oprofileui-server \
             lttng-control \
             lttng-viewer"

         RRECOMMENDS_packagegroup-custom-tools = "\
             kernel-module-oprofile"

In the previous example, two package group packages are created with their dependencies and their recommended package dependencies listed: `packagegroup-custom-apps`, and `packagegroup-custom-tools`. To build an image using these package group packages, you need to add `packagegroup-custom-apps` and/or `packagegroup-custom-tools` to `IMAGE_INSTALL`. For other forms of image dependencies see the other areas of this section.

### Customizing Images Using Custom `IMAGE_FEATURES` and `EXTRA_IMAGE_FEATURES`

Ultimately users might want to add extra image features to the set by using the `IMAGE_FEATURES` variable. To create these features, the best reference is `meta/classes/core-image.bbclass`, which shows how this is achieved. In summary, the file looks at the contents of the `IMAGE_FEATURES` variable and then maps that into a set of tasks or packages. Based on this information, the `IMAGE_INSTALL` variable is generated automatically. Users can add extra features by extending the class or creating a custom class for use with specialized image `.bb` files. You can also add more features by configuring the `EXTRA_IMAGE_FEATURES` variable in the `local.conf` file found in the Source Directory located in the Build Directory.

The Yocto Project ships with two SSH servers you can use in your images: Dropbear and OpenSSH. Dropbear is a minimal SSH server appropriate for resource-constrained environments, while OpenSSH is a well-known standard SSH server implementation. By default, the `core-image-sato` image is configured to use Dropbear. The `core-image-basic` and `core-image-lsb` images both include OpenSSH. The `core-image-minimal` image does not contain an SSH server. To change these defaults, edit the `IMAGE_FEATURES` variable so that it sets the image you are working with to include `ssh-server-dropbear` or `ssh-server-openssh`.

### Customizing Images Using `local.conf`

It is possible to customize image contents by using variables from your local configuration in your `conf/local.conf` file. Because it is limited to local use, this method generally only allows you to add packages and is not as flexible as creating your own customized image. When you add packages using local variables this way, you need to realize that these variable changes affect all images at the same time and might not be what you require.

The simplest way to add extra packages to all images is by using the `IMAGE_INSTALL` variable with the `_append` operator:

         IMAGE_INSTALL_append = " strace"

Use of the syntax is important. Specifically, the space between the quote and the package name, which is `strace` in this example. This space is required since the `_append` operator does not add the space.

Furthermore, you must use `_append` instead of the `+=` operator if you want to avoid ordering issues. The reason for this is because doing so unconditionally appends to the variable and avoids ordering problems due to the variable being set in image recipes and `.bbclass` files with operators like `?=`. Using `_append` ensures the operation takes affect.

As shown in its simplest use, `IMAGE_INSTALL_append` affects all images. It is possible to extend the syntax so that the variable applies to a specific image only. Here is an example:

         IMAGE_INSTALL_append_pn-core-image-minimal = " strace"

This example adds `strace` to `core-image-minimal` only.

You can add packages using a similar approach through the `CORE_IMAGE_EXTRA_INSTALL` variable. If you use this variable, only `core-image-*` images are affected.

## Adding a Package

To add a package you need to write a recipe for it. Writing a recipe means creating a `.bb` file that sets some variables. For information on variables that are useful for recipes and for information about recipe naming issues, see the "Required" section of the Yocto Project Reference Manual.

Before writing a recipe from scratch, it is often useful to check whether someone else has written one already. OpenEmbedded is a good place to look as it has a wider scope and range of packages. Because the Yocto Project aims to be compatible with OpenEmbedded, most recipes you find there should work for you.

For new packages, the simplest way to add a recipe is to base it on a similar pre-existing recipe. The sections that follow provide some examples that show how to add standard types of packages.

### Single .c File Package (Hello World!)

Building an application from a single file that is stored locally (e.g. under `files/`) requires a recipe that has the file listed in the `SRC_URI` variable. Additionally, you need to manually write the `do_compile` and `do_install` tasks. The `S` variable defines the directory containing the source code, which is set to `WORKDIR` in this case - the directory BitBake uses for the build.

         DESCRIPTION = "Simple helloworld application"
         SECTION = "examples"
         LICENSE = "MIT"
         LIC_FILES_CHKSUM = "file://${COMMON_LICENSE_DIR}/MIT;md5=0835ade698e0bcf8506ecda2f7b4f302"
         PR = "r0"

         SRC_URI = "file://helloworld.c"

         S = "${WORKDIR}"

         do_compile() {
         	${CC} helloworld.c -o helloworld
         }

         do_install() {
         	install -d ${D}${bindir}
         	install -m 0755 helloworld ${D}${bindir}
         }

By default, the `helloworld`, `helloworld-dbg`, and `helloworld-dev` packages are built. For information on how to customize the packaging process, see the "Splitting an Application into Multiple Packages" section.

### Autotooled Package

Applications that use Autotools such as `autoconf` and `automake` require a recipe that has a source archive listed in `SRC_URI` and also inherits Autotools, which instructs BitBake to use the `autotools.bbclass` file, which contains the definitions of all the steps needed to build an Autotool-based application. The result of the build is automatically packaged. And, if the application uses NLS for localization, packages with local information are generated (one package per language). Following is one example: (`hello_2.3.bb`)

         DESCRIPTION = "GNU Helloworld application"
         SECTION = "examples"
         LICENSE = "GPLv2+"
         LIC_FILES_CHKSUM = "file://COPYING;md5=751419260aa954499f7abaabaa882bbe"
         PR = "r0"

         SRC_URI = "${GNU_MIRROR}/hello/hello-${PV}.tar.gz"

         inherit autotools gettext

The variable `LIC_FILES_CHKSUM` is used to track source license changes as described in the "Track License Changes" section. You can quickly create Autotool-based recipes in a manner similar to the previous example.

### Makefile-Based Package

Applications that use GNU `make` also require a recipe that has the source archive listed in `SRC_URI`. You do not need to add a `do_compile` step since by default BitBake starts the `make` command to compile the application. If you need additional `make` options you should store them in the `EXTRA_OEMAKE` variable. BitBake passes these options into the `make` GNU invocation. Note that a `do_install` task is still required. Otherwise, BitBake runs an empty `do_install` task by default.

Some applications might require extra parameters to be passed to the compiler. For example, the application might need an additional header path. You can accomplish this by adding to the `CFLAGS` variable. The following example shows this:

         CFLAGS_prepend = "-I ${S}/include "

In the following example, `mtd-utils` is a makefile-based package:

         DESCRIPTION = "Tools for managing memory technology devices."
         SECTION = "base"
         DEPENDS = "zlib lzo e2fsprogs util-linux"
         HOMEPAGE = "http://www.linux-mtd.infradead.org/"
         LICENSE = "GPLv2+"
         LIC_FILES_CHKSUM = "file://COPYING;md5=0636e73ff0215e8d672dc4c32c317bb3 \
                        file://include/common.h;beginline=1;endline=17;md5=ba05b07912a44ea2bf81ce409380049c"

         SRC_URI = "git://git.infradead.org/mtd-utils.git;protocol=git;tag=995cfe51b0a3cf32f381c140bf72b21bf91cef1b \
    	     	file://add-exclusion-to-mkfs-jffs2-git-2.patch"

         S = "${WORKDIR}/git/"

         PR = "r1"

         EXTRA_OEMAKE = "'CC=${CC}' 'RANLIB=${RANLIB}' 'AR=${AR}' \
            'CFLAGS=${CFLAGS} -I${S}/include -DWITHOUT_XATTR' 'BUILDDIR=${S}'"

         do_install () {
    	     oe_runmake install DESTDIR=${D} SBINDIR=${sbindir} MANDIR=${mandir} \
                INCLUDEDIR=${includedir}
    	     install -d ${D}${includedir}/mtd/
    	     for f in ${S}/include/mtd/*.h; do
    	     	install -m 0644 $f ${D}${includedir}/mtd/
    	     done
         }

         PARALLEL_MAKE = ""

         BBCLASSEXTEND = "native"

If your sources are available as a tarball instead of a Git repository, you will need to provide the URL to the tarball as well as an `md5` or `sha256` sum of the download. Here is an example:

         SRC_URI="ftp://ftp.infradead.org/pub/mtd-utils/mtd-utils-1.4.9.tar.bz2"
         SRC_URI[md5sum]="82b8e714b90674896570968f70ca778b"

You can generate the `md5` or `sha256` sums by using the `md5sum` or `sha256sum` commands with the target file as the only argument. Here is an example:

         $ md5sum mtd-utils-1.4.9.tar.bz2
         82b8e714b90674896570968f70ca778b mtd-utils-1.4.9.tar.bz2

### Splitting an Application into Multiple Packages

You can use the variables `PACKAGES` and `FILES` to split an application into multiple packages.

Following is an example that uses the `libXpm` recipe. By default, this recipe generates a single package that contains the library along with a few binaries. You can modify the recipe to split the binaries into separate packages:

         require xorg-lib-common.inc

         DESCRIPTION = "X11 Pixmap library"
         LICENSE = "X-BSD"
         LIC_FILES_CHKSUM = "file://COPYING;md5=3e07763d16963c3af12db271a31abaa5"
         DEPENDS += "libxext libsm libxt"
         PR = "r3"
         PE = "1"

         XORG_PN = "libXpm"

         PACKAGES =+ "sxpm cxpm"
         FILES_cxpm = "${bindir}/cxpm"
         FILES_sxpm = "${bindir}/sxpm"

In the previous example, we want to ship the `sxpm` and `cxpm` binaries in separate packages. Since `bindir` would be packaged into the main `PN` package by default, we prepend the `PACKAGES` variable so additional package names are added to the start of list. This results in the extra `FILES_*` variables then containing information that define which files and directories go into which packages. Files included by earlier packages are skipped by latter packages. Thus, the main `PN` package does not include the above listed files.

### Including Static Library Files

If you are building a library and the library offers static linking, you can control which static library files (`*.a` files) get included in the built library.

The `PACKAGES` and `FILES_*` variables in the `meta/conf/bitbake.conf` configuration file define how files installed by the `do_install` task are packaged. By default, the `PACKAGES` variable contains `${PN}-staticdev`, which includes all static library files.

Previously released versions of the Yocto Project defined the static library files through `${PN}-dev`.

Following, is part of the BitBake configuration file. You can see where the static library files are defined:

         PACKAGES = "${PN}-dbg ${PN} ${PN}-doc ${PN}-dev ${PN}-staticdev ${PN}-locale"
         PACKAGES_DYNAMIC = "${PN}-locale-*"
         FILES = ""

         FILES_${PN} = "${bindir}/* ${sbindir}/* ${libexecdir}/* ${libdir}/lib*${SOLIBS} \
                     ${sysconfdir} ${sharedstatedir} ${localstatedir} \
                     ${base_bindir}/* ${base_sbindir}/* \
                     ${base_libdir}/*${SOLIBS} \
                     ${datadir}/${BPN} ${libdir}/${BPN}/* \
                     ${datadir}/pixmaps ${datadir}/applications \
                     ${datadir}/idl ${datadir}/omf ${datadir}/sounds \
                     ${libdir}/bonobo/servers"

         FILES_${PN}-doc = "${docdir} ${mandir} ${infodir} ${datadir}/gtk-doc \
                     ${datadir}/gnome/help"
         SECTION_${PN}-doc = "doc"

         FILES_${PN}-dev = "${includedir} ${libdir}/lib*${SOLIBSDEV} ${libdir}/*.la \
                         ${libdir}/*.o ${libdir}/pkgconfig ${datadir}/pkgconfig \
                         ${datadir}/aclocal ${base_libdir}/*.o"
         SECTION_${PN}-dev = "devel"
         ALLOW_EMPTY_${PN}-dev = "1"
         RDEPENDS_${PN}-dev = "${PN} (= ${EXTENDPKGV})"

         FILES_${PN}-staticdev = "${libdir}/*.a ${base_libdir}/*.a"
         SECTION_${PN}-staticdev = "devel"
         RDEPENDS_${PN}-staticdev = "${PN}-dev (= ${EXTENDPKGV})"

### Post Install Scripts

To add a post-installation script to a package, add a `pkg_postinst_PACKAGENAME()` function to the `.bb` file and use `PACKAGENAME` as the name of the package you want to attach to the `postinst` script. Normally `PN` can be used, which automatically expands to `PACKAGENAME`. A post-installation function has the following structure:

         pkg_postinst_PACKAGENAME () {
         #!/bin/sh -e
         # Commands to carry out
         }

The script defined in the post-installation function is called when the root filesystem is created. If the script succeeds, the package is marked as installed. If the script fails, the package is marked as unpacked and the script is executed when the image boots again.

Sometimes it is necessary for the execution of a post-installation script to be delayed until the first boot. For example, the script might need to be executed on the device itself. To delay script execution until boot time, use the following structure in the post-installation script:

         pkg_postinst_PACKAGENAME () {
         #!/bin/sh -e
         if [ x"$D" = "x" ]; then
              # Actions to carry out on the device go here
         else
              exit 1
         fi
         }

The previous example delays execution until the image boots again because the `D` variable points to the directory containing the image when the root filesystem is created at build time but is unset when executed on the first boot.

## Adding a New Machine

Adding a new machine to the Yocto Project is a straightforward process. This section provides information that gives you an idea of the changes you must make. The information covers adding machines similar to those the Yocto Project already supports. Although well within the capabilities of the Yocto Project, adding a totally new architecture might require changes to `gcc/eglibc` and to the site information, which is beyond the scope of this manual.

For a complete example that shows how to add a new machine, see the "Creating a New BSP Layer Using the yocto-bsp Script" in the Yocto Project Board Support Package (BSP) Developer's Guide.

### Adding the Machine Configuration File

To add a machine configuration you need to add a `.conf` file with details of the device being added to the `conf/machine/` file. The name of the file determines the name the OpenEmbedded build system uses to reference the new machine.

The most important variables to set in this file are as follows:

- `TARGET_ARCH` (e.g. "arm")

- `PREFERRED_PROVIDER`_virtual/kernel (see below)

- `MACHINE_FEATURES` (e.g. "apm screen wifi")

You might also need these variables:

- `SERIAL_CONSOLE` (e.g. "115200 ttyS0")

- `KERNEL_IMAGETYPE` (e.g. "zImage")

- `IMAGE_FSTYPES` (e.g. "tar.gz jffs2")

You can find full details on these variables in the reference section. You can leverage many existing machine `.conf` files from `meta/conf/machine/`.

### Adding a Kernel for the Machine

The OpenEmbedded build system needs to be able to build a kernel for the machine. You need to either create a new kernel recipe for this machine, or extend an existing recipe. You can find several kernel examples in the Source Directory at `meta/recipes-kernel/linux` that you can use as references.

If you are creating a new recipe, normal recipe-writing rules apply for setting up a `SRC_URI`. Thus, you need to specify any necessary patches and set `S` to point at the source code. You need to create a `configure` task that configures the unpacked kernel with a defconfig. You can do this by using a `make defconfig` command or, more commonly, by copying in a suitable `defconfig` file and and then running `make oldconfig`. By making use of `inherit kernel` and potentially some of the `linux-*.inc` files, most other functionality is centralized and the the defaults of the class normally work well.

If you are extending an existing kernel, it is usually a matter of adding a suitable defconfig file. The file needs to be added into a location similar to defconfig files used for other machines in a given kernel. A possible way to do this is by listing the file in the `SRC_URI` and adding the machine to the expression in `COMPATIBLE_MACHINE`:

         COMPATIBLE_MACHINE = '(qemux86|qemumips)'

### Adding a Formfactor Configuration File

A formfactor configuration file provides information about the target hardware for which the image is being built and information that the build system cannot obtain from other sources such as the kernel. Some examples of information contained in a formfactor configuration file include framebuffer orientation, whether or not the system has a keyboard, the positioning of the keyboard in relation to the screen, and the screen resolution.

The build system uses reasonable defaults in most cases, but if customization is necessary you need to create a `machconfig` file in the `meta/recipes-bsp/formfactor/files` directory. This directory contains directories for specific machines such as `qemuarm` and `qemux86`. For information about the settings available and the defaults, see the `meta/recipes-bsp/formfactor/files/config` file found in the same area. Following is an example for qemuarm:

         HAVE_TOUCHSCREEN=1
         HAVE_KEYBOARD=1

         DISPLAY_CAN_ROTATE=0
         DISPLAY_ORIENTATION=0
         #DISPLAY_WIDTH_PIXELS=640
         #DISPLAY_HEIGHT_PIXELS=480
         #DISPLAY_BPP=16
         DISPLAY_DPI=150
         DISPLAY_SUBPIXEL_ORDER=vrgb

## Combining Multiple Versions of Library Files into One Image

The build system offers the ability to build libraries with different target optimizations or architecture formats and combine these together into one system image. You can link different binaries in the image against the different libraries as needed for specific use cases. This feature is called "Multilib."

An example would be where you have most of a system compiled in 32-bit mode using 32-bit libraries, but you have something large, like a database engine, that needs to be a 64-bit application and use 64-bit libraries. Multilib allows you to get the best of both 32-bit and 64-bit libraries.

While the Multilib feature is most commonly used for 32 and 64-bit differences, the approach the build system uses facilitates different target optimizations. You could compile some binaries to use one set of libraries and other binaries to use other different sets of libraries. The libraries could differ in architecture, compiler options, or other optimizations.

This section overviews the Multilib process only. For more details on how to implement Multilib, see the Multilib wiki page.

### Preparing to use Multilib

User-specific requirements drive the Multilib feature, Consequently, there is no one "out-of-the-box" configuration that likely exists to meet your needs.

In order to enable Multilib, you first need to ensure your recipe is extended to support multiple libraries. Many standard recipes are already extended and support multiple libraries. You can check in the `meta/conf/multilib.conf` configuration file in the Source Directory to see how this is done using the `BBCLASSEXTEND` variable. Eventually, all recipes will be covered and this list will be unneeded.

For the most part, the Multilib class extension works automatically to extend the package name from `${PN}` to `${MLPREFIX}${PN}`, where `MLPREFIX` is the particular multilib (e.g. "lib32-" or "lib64-"). Standard variables such as `DEPENDS`, `RDEPENDS`, `RPROVIDES`, `RRECOMMENDS`, `PACKAGES`, and `PACKAGES_DYNAMIC` are automatically extended by the system. If you are extending any manual code in the recipe, you can use the `${MLPREFIX}` variable to ensure those names are extended correctly. This automatic extension code resides in `multilib.bbclass`.

### Using Multilib

After you have set up the recipes, you need to define the actual combination of multiple libraries you want to build. You accomplish this through your `local.conf` configuration file in the Build Directory. An example configuration would be as follows:

         MACHINE = "qemux86-64"
         require conf/multilib.conf
         MULTILIBS = "multilib:lib32"
         DEFAULTTUNE_virtclass-multilib-lib32 = "x86"
         IMAGE_INSTALL = "lib32-connman"

This example enables an additional library named `lib32` alongside the normal target packages. When combining these "lib32" alternatives, the example uses "x86" for tuning. For information on this particular tuning, see `meta/conf/machine/include/ia32/arch-ia32.inc`.

The example then includes `lib32-connman` in all the images, which illustrates one method of including a multiple library dependency. You can use a normal image build to include this dependency, for example:

         $ bitbake core-image-sato

You can also build Multilib packages specifically with a command like this:

         $  bitbake lib32-connman

### Additional Implementation Details

Different packaging systems have different levels of native Multilib support. For the RPM Package Management System, the following implementation details exist:

- A unique architecture is defined for the Multilib packages, along with creating a unique deploy folder under `tmp/deploy/rpm` in the Build Directory. For example, consider `lib32` in a `qemux86-64` image. The possible architectures in the system are "all", "qemux86_64", "lib32_qemux86_64", and "lib32_x86".

- The `${MLPREFIX}` variable is stripped from `${PN}` during RPM packaging. The naming for a normal RPM package and a Multilib RPM package in a `qemux86-64` system resolves to something similar to `bash-4.1-r2.x86_64.rpm` and `bash-4.1.r2.lib32_x86.rpm`, respectively.

- When installing a Multilib image, the RPM backend first installs the base image and then installs the Multilib libraries.

- The build system relies on RPM to resolve the identical files in the two (or more) Multilib packages.

For the IPK Package Management System, the following implementation details exist:

- The `${MLPREFIX}` is not stripped from `${PN}` during IPK packaging. The naming for a normal RPM package and a Multilib IPK package in a `qemux86-64` system resolves to something like `bash_4.1-r2.x86_64.ipk` and `lib32-bash_4.1-rw_x86.ipk`, respectively.

- The IPK deploy folder is not modified with `${MLPREFIX}` because packages with and without the Multilib feature can exist in the same folder due to the `${PN}` differences.

- IPK defines a sanity check for Multilib installation using certain rules for file comparison, overridden, etc.

## Configuring the Kernel

Configuring the Yocto Project kernel consists of making sure the `.config` file has all the right information in it for the image you are building. You can use the `menuconfig` tool and configuration fragments to make sure your `.config` file is just how you need it. This section describes how to use `menuconfig`, create and use configuration fragments, and how to interactively tweak your `.config` file to create the leanest kernel configuration file possible.

For concepts on kernel configuration, see the "Kernel Configuration" section in the Yocto Project Kernel Architecture and Use Manual.

### Using `menuconfig`

The easiest way to define kernel configurations is to set them through the `menuconfig` tool. This tool provides an interactive method with which to set kernel configurations. For general information on `menuconfig`, see .

To use the `menuconfig` tool in the Yocto Project development environment, you must build the tool using BitBake. Thus, the environment must be set up using the `&OE_INIT_FILE;` script found in the Build Directory. The following commands build and invoke `menuconfig` assuming the Source Directory top-level folder is `~/poky`:

         $ cd ~/poky
         $ source oe-init-build-env
         $ bitbake linux-yocto -c menuconfig

Once `menuconfig` comes up, its standard interface allows you to interactively examine and configure all the kernel configuration parameters. After making your changes, simply exit the tool and save your changes to create an updated version of the `.config` configuration file.

Consider an example that configures the `linux-yocto-3.4` kernel. The OpenEmbedded build system recognizes this kernel as `linux-yocto`. Thus, the following commands from the shell in which you previously sourced the environment initialization script cleans the shared state cache and the `WORKDIR` directory and then builds and launches `menuconfig`:

         $ bitbake linux-yocto -c menuconfig

Once `menuconfig` launches, you use the interface to navigate through the selections to find the configuration settings in which you are interested. For example, consider the `CONFIG_SMP` configuration setting. You can find it at `Processor Type and Features` under the configuration selection `Symmetric Multi-processing Support`. After highlighting the selection, you can use the arrow keys to select or deselect the setting. When you are finished with all your selections, exit out and save them.

Saving the selections updates the `.config` configuration file. This is the file that the OpenEmbedded build system uses to configure the kernel during the build. You can find and examine this file in the Build Directory in `tmp/work/`. The actual `.config` is located in the area where the specific kernel is built. For example, if you were building a Linux Yocto kernel based on the Linux 3.4 kernel and you were building a QEMU image targeted for `x86` architecture, the `.config` file would be located here:

         ~/poky/build/tmp/work/qemux86-poky-linux/linux-yocto-3.4.11+git1+84f...
            ...656ed30-r1/linux-qemux86-standard-build

The previous example directory is artificially split and many of the characters in the actual filename are omitted in order to make it more readable. Also, depending on the kernel you are using, the exact pathname for `linux-yocto-3.4...` might differ.

Within the `.config` file, you can see the kernel settings. For example, the following entry shows that symmetric multi-processor support is not set:

         # CONFIG_SMP is not set

A good method to isolate changed configurations is to use a combination of the `menuconfig` tool and simple shell commands. Before changing configurations with `menuconfig`, copy the existing `.config` and rename it to something else, use `menuconfig` to make as many changes an you want and save them, then compare the renamed configuration file against the newly created file. You can use the resulting differences as your base to create configuration fragments to permanently save in your kernel layer.

Be sure to make a copy of the `.config` and don't just rename it. The build system needs an existing `.config` from which to work.

### Creating Configuration Fragments

Configuration fragments are simply kernel options that appear in a file placed where the OpenEmbedded build system can find and apply them. Syntactically, the configuration statement is identical to what would appear in the `.config` file, which is in the Build Directory in `tmp/work/<arch>-poky-linux/linux-yocto-<release-specific-string>/linux-<arch>-<build-type>`.

It is simple to create a configuration fragment. For example, issuing the following from the shell creates a configuration fragment file named `my_smp.cfg` that enables multi-processor support within the kernel:

         $ echo "CONFIG_SMP=y" >> my_smp.cfg

All configuration files must use the `.cfg` extension in order for the OpenEmbedded build system to recognize them as a configuration fragment.

Where do you put your configuration files? You can place these configuration files in the same area pointed to by `SRC_URI`. The OpenEmbedded build system will pick up the configuration and add it to the kernel's configuration. For example, suppose you had a set of configuration options in a file called `myconfig.cfg`. If you put that file inside a directory named `/linux-yocto` that resides in the same directory as the kernel's append file and then add a `SRC_URI` statement such as the following to the kernel's append file, those configuration options will be picked up and applied when the kernel is built.

         SRC_URI += "file://myconfig.cfg"

As mentioned earlier, you can group related configurations into multiple files and name them all in the `SRC_URI` statement as well. For example, you could group separate configurations specifically for Ethernet and graphics into their own files and add those by using a `SRC_URI` statement like the following in your append file:

         SRC_URI += "file://myconfig.cfg \
                file://eth.cfg \
                file://gfx.cfg"

### Fine-tuning the Kernel Configuration File

You can make sure the `.config` is as lean or efficient as possible by reading the output of the kernel configuration fragment audit, noting any issues, making changes to correct the issues, and then repeating.

As part of the kernel build process, the `kernel_configcheck` task runs. This task validates the kernel configuration by checking the final `.config` file against the input files. During the check, the task produces warning messages for the following issues:

- Requested options that did not make the final `.config` file.

- Configuration items that appear twice in the same configuration fragment.

- Configuration items tagged as 'required' were overridden.

- A board overrides a non-board specific option.

- Listed options not valid for the kernel being processed. In other words, the option does not appear anywhere.

The `kernel_configcheck` task can also optionally report if an option is overridden during processing.

For each output warning, a message points to the file that contains a list of the options and a pointer to the config fragment that defines them. Collectively, the files are the key to streamlining the configuration.

To streamline the configuration, do the following:

1. Start with a full configuration that you know works - it builds and boots successfully. This configuration file will be your baseline.

2. Separately run the `configme` and `kernel_configcheck` tasks.

3. Take the resulting list of files from the `kernel_configcheck` task warnings and do the following:

   - Drop values that are redefined in the fragment but do not change the final `.config` file.

   - Analyze and potentially drop values from the `.config` file that override required configurations.

   - Analyze and potentially remove non-board specific options.

   - Remove repeated and invalid options.

4. After you have worked through the output of the kernel configuration audit, you can re-run the `configme` and `kernel_configcheck` tasks to see the results of your changes. If you have more issues, you can deal with them as described in the previous step.

Iteratively working through steps two through four eventually yields a minimal, streamlined configuration file. Once you have the best `.config`, you can build the Linux Yocto kernel.

## Patching the Kernel

Patching the kernel involves changing or adding configurations to an existing kernel, changing or adding recipes to the kernel that are needed to support specific hardware features, or even altering the source code itself.

You can use the `yocto-kernel` script found in the Source Directory under `scripts` to manage kernel patches and configuration. See the "Managing kernel Patches and Config Items with yocto-kernel" section in the Yocto Project Board Support Packages (BSP) Developer's Guide for more information.

This example creates a simple patch by adding some QEMU emulator console output at boot time through `printk` statements in the kernel's `calibrate.c` source code file. Applying the patch and booting the modified image causes the added messages to appear on the emulator's console.

The example assumes a clean build exists for the `qemux86` machine in a Source Directory named `poky`. Furthermore, the Build Directory is `build` and is located in `poky` and the kernel is based on the Linux 3.4 kernel. For general information on how to configure the most efficient build, see the "Building an Image" section in the Yocto Project Quick Start.

### Create a Layer for your Changes

The first step is to create a layer so you can isolate your changes:

         $cd ~/poky
         $mkdir meta-mylayer

Creating a directory that follows the Yocto Project layer naming conventions sets up the layer for your changes. The layer is where you place your configuration files, append files, and patch files. To learn more about creating a layer and filling it with the files you need, see the "Understanding and Creating Layers" section.

### Finding the Kernel Source Code

Each time you build a kernel image, the kernel source code is fetched and unpacked into the following directory:

         ${S}/linux

See the "Finding the Temporary Source Code" section and the `S` variable for more information about where source is kept during a build.

For this example, we are going to patch the `init/calibrate.c` file by adding some simple console `printk` statements that we can see when we boot the image using QEMU.

### Creating the Patch

Two methods exist by which you can create the patch: Git workflow and Quilt workflow. For kernel patches, the Git workflow is more appropriate. This section assumes the Git workflow and shows the steps specific to this example.

1. Change the working directory: Change to where the kernel source code is before making your edits to the `calibrate.c` file:

            $ cd ~/poky/build/tmp/work/qemux86-poky-linux/linux-yocto-${PV}-${PR}/linux

   Because you are working in an established Git repository, you must be in this directory in order to commit your changes and create the patch file.

   The `PV` and `PR` variables represent the version and revision for the `linux-yocto` recipe. The `PV` variable includes the Git meta and machine hashes, which make the directory name longer than you might expect.

2. Edit the source file: Edit the `init/calibrate.c` file to have the following changes:

            void __cpuinit calibrate_delay(void)
            {
                unsigned long lpj;
                static bool printed;
                int this_cpu = smp_processor_id();

                printk("*************************************\n");
                printk("*                                   *\n");
                printk("*        HELLO YOCTO KERNEL         *\n");
                printk("*                                   *\n");
                printk("*************************************\n");

            	if (per_cpu(cpu_loops_per_jiffy, this_cpu)) {
                      .
                      .
                      .

3. Stage and commit your changes: These Git commands list out the changed file, stage it, and then commit the file:

            $ git status
            $ git add init/calibrate.c
            $ git commit -m "calibrate: Add printk example"

4. Generate the patch file: This Git command creates the a patch file named `0001-calibrate-Add-printk-example.patch` in the current directory.

            $ git format-patch -1

### Get Your Layer Setup for the Build

These steps get your layer set up for the build:

1. Create additional structure: Create the additional layer structure:

            $ cd ~/poky/meta-mylayer
            $ mkdir conf
            $ mkdir recipes-kernel
            $ mkdir recipes-kernel/linux
            $ mkdir recipes-kernel/linux/linux-yocto

   The `conf` directory holds your configuration files, while the `recipes-kernel` directory holds your append file and your patch file.

2. Create the layer configuration file: Move to the `meta-mylayer/conf` directory and create the `layer.conf` file as follows:

            # We have a conf and classes directory, add to BBPATH
            BBPATH := "${LAYERDIR}:${BBPATH}"

            # We have a packages directory, add to BBFILES
            BBFILES := "${BBFILES} ${LAYERDIR}/recipes-*/*/*.bb \
                        ${LAYERDIR}/recipes-*/*/*.bbappend"

            BBFILE_COLLECTIONS += "mylayer"
            BBFILE_PATTERN_mylayer := "^${LAYERDIR}/"
            BBFILE_PRIORITY_mylayer = "5"

   Notice `mylayer` as part of the last three statements.

3. Create the kernel recipe append file: Move to the `meta-mylayer/recipes-kernel/linux` directory and create the `linux-yocto_3.4.bbappend` file as follows:

            FILESEXTRAPATHS_prepend := "${THISDIR}/${PN}:"

            SRC_URI += "file://0001-calibrate-Add-printk-example.patch"

            PRINC := "${@int(PRINC) + 1}"

   The `FILESEXTRAPATHS` and `SRC_URI` statements enable the OpenEmbedded build system to find the patch file.

4. Put the patch file in your layer: Move the `0001-calibrate-Add-printk-example.patch` file to the `meta-mylayer/recipes-kernel/linux/linux-yocto` directory.

### Set Up for the Build

Do the following to make sure the build parameters are set up for the example. Once you set up these build parameters, they do not have to change unless you change the target architecture of the machine you are building:

- Build for the Correct Target Architecture: Your selected `MACHINE` definition within the `local.conf` file in the Build Directory specifies the target architecture used when building the Linux kernel. By default, `MACHINE` is set to `qemux86`, which specifies a 32-bit Intel Architecture target machine suitable for the QEMU emulator.

- Identify Your `meta-mylayer` Layer: The `BBLAYERS` variable in the `bblayers.conf` file found in the `poky/build/conf` directory needs to have the path to your local `meta-mylayer` layer. By default, the `BBLAYERS` variable contains paths to `meta`, `meta-yocto`, and `meta-yocto-bsp` in the `poky` Git repository. Add the path to your `meta-mylayer` location. Be sure to substitute your user information in the statement:

           BBLAYERS = " \
             /home/<user>/poky/meta \
             /home/<user>/poky/meta-yocto \
             /home/<user>/poky/meta-yocto-bsp \
             /home/<user>/poky/meta-mylayer \
             "

### Build and Booting the Modified QEMU Kernel Image

The following steps build and boot your modified kernel image:

1. Be sure your build environment is initialized: Your environment should be set up since you previously sourced the `&OE_INIT_FILE;` script. If it is not, source the script again from `poky`.

            $ cd ~/poky
            $ source &OE_INIT_FILE;

2. Clean up: Be sure to clean the shared state out by running the `cleansstate` BitBake task as follows from your Build Directory:

            $ bitbake -c cleansstate linux-yocto

   Never remove any files by hand from the `tmp/deploy` directory inside the Build Directory. Always use the various BitBake clean tasks to clear out previous build artifacts.

3. Build the image: Next, build the kernel image using this command:

            $ bitbake -k linux-yocto

### Verify Your Changes

These steps boot the image and allow you to see the changes

1. Boot the image: Boot the modified image in the QEMU emulator using this command:

            $ runqemu qemux86

2. Verify the changes: Log into the machine using `root` with no password and then use the following shell command to scroll through the console's boot output.

            # dmesg | less

   You should see the results of your `printk` statements as part of the output.

## Updating Existing Images

Often, rather than re-flashing a new image, you might wish to install updated packages into an existing running system. You can do this by first sharing the `tmp/deploy/ipk/` directory through a web server and then by changing `/etc/opkg/base-feeds.conf` to point at the shared server. Following is an example:

         $ src/gz all http://www.mysite.com/somedir/deploy/ipk/all
         $ src/gz armv7a http://www.mysite.com/somedir/deploy/ipk/armv7a
         $ src/gz beagleboard http://www.mysite.com/somedir/deploy/ipk/beagleboard

## Incrementing a Package Revision Number

If a committed change results in changing the package output, then the value of the `PR` variable needs to be increased (or "bumped") as part of that commit. For new recipes you should add the `PR` variable and set its initial value equal to "r0", which is the default. Even though the default value is "r0", the practice of adding it to a new recipe makes it harder to forget to bump the variable when you make changes to the recipe in future.

If you are sharing a common `.inc` file with multiple recipes, you can also use the `INC_PR` variable to ensure that the recipes sharing the `.inc` file are rebuilt when the `.inc` file itself is changed. The `.inc` file must set `INC_PR` (initially to "r0"), and all recipes referring to it should set `PR` to "$(INC_PR).0" initially, incrementing the last number when the recipe is changed. If the `.inc` file is changed then its `INC_PR` should be incremented.

When upgrading the version of a package, assuming the `PV` changes, the `PR` variable should be reset to "r0" (or "$(INC_PR).0" if you are using `INC_PR`).

Usually, version increases occur only to packages. However, if for some reason `PV` changes but does not increase, you can increase the `PE` variable (Package Epoch). The `PE` variable defaults to "0".

Version numbering strives to follow the Debian Version Field Policy Guidelines. These guidelines define how versions are compared and what "increasing" a version means.

There are two reasons for following the previously mentioned guidelines. First, to ensure that when a developer updates and rebuilds, they get all the changes to the repository and do not have to remember to rebuild any sections. Second, to ensure that target users are able to upgrade their devices using package manager commands such as `opkg upgrade` (or similar commands for dpkg/apt or rpm-based systems).

The goal is to ensure the Yocto Project has packages that can be upgraded in all cases.

## Handling a Package Name Alias

Sometimes a package name you are using might exist under an alias or as a similarly named package in a different distribution. The OpenEmbedded build system implements a `distro_check` task that automatically connects to major distributions and checks for these situations. If the package exists under a different name in a different distribution, you get a `distro_check` mismatch. You can resolve this problem by defining a per-distro recipe name alias using the `DISTRO_PN_ALIAS` variable.

Following is an example that shows how you specify the `DISTRO_PN_ALIAS` variable:

         DISTRO_PN_ALIAS_pn-PACKAGENAME = "distro1=package_name_alias1 \
                                           distro2=package_name_alias2 \
                                           distro3=package_name_alias3 \
                                           ..."

If you have more than one distribution alias, separate them with a space. Note that the build system currently automatically checks the Fedora, OpenSuSE, Debian, Ubuntu, and Mandriva distributions for source package recipes without having to specify them using the `DISTRO_PN_ALIAS` variable. For example, the following command generates a report that lists the Linux distributions that include the sources for each of the recipes.

         $ bitbake world -f -c distro_check

The results are stored in the `build/tmp/log/distro_check-${DATETIME}.results` file found in the Source Directory.

## Building Software from an External Source

By default, the OpenEmbedded build system does its work from within the Build Directory. The build process involves fetching the source files, unpacking them, and then patching them if necessary before the build takes place.

Situations exist where you might want to build software from source files that are external to and thus outside of the Source Directory. For example, suppose you have a project that includes a new BSP with a heavily customized kernel, a very minimal image, and some new user-space recipes. And, you want to minimize exposing the build system to the development team so that they can focus on their project and maintain everyone's workflow as much as possible. In this case, you want a kernel source directory on the development machine where the development occurs. You want the recipe's `SRC_URI` variable to point to the external directory and use it as is, not copy it.

To build from software that comes from an external source, all you need to do is change your recipe so that it inherits the `externalsrc.bbclass` class and then sets the `S` variable to point to your external source code. Here are the statements to put in your recipe:

         inherit externalsrc
         S = "/some/path/to/your/package/source"

It is important to know that the `externalsrc.bbclass` assumes that the source directory `S` and the Build Directory `B` are different even though by default these directories are the same. This assumption is important because it supports building different variants of the recipe by using the `BBCLASSEXTEND` variable. You could allow the Build Directory to be the same as the source directory but you would not be able to build more than one variant of the recipe. Consequently, if you are building multiple variants of the recipe, you need to establish a Build Directory that is different than the source directory.

## Excluding Recipes From the Build

You might find that there are groups of recipes you want to filter out of the build process. For example, recipes you know you will never use or want should not be part of the build. Removing these recipes from parsing speeds up parts of the build.

It is possible to filter or mask out `.bb` and `.bbappend` files. You can do this by providing an expression with the `BBMASK` variable. Here is an example:

         BBMASK = ".*/meta-mymachine/recipes-maybe/"

Here, all `.bb` and `.bbappend` files in the directory that match the expression are ignored during the build process.

## Using an External SCM

If you're working on a recipe that pulls from an external Source Code Manager (SCM), it is possible to have the OpenEmbedded build system notice new recipe changes added to the SCM and then build the resulting package that depends on the new recipes by using the latest versions. This only works for SCMs from which it is possible to get a sensible revision number for changes. Currently, you can do this with Apache Subversion (SVN), Git, and Bazaar (BZR) repositories.

To enable this behavior, simply add the following to the `local.conf` configuration file found in the Build Directory:

         SRCREV_pn-<PN> = "${AUTOREV}"

where `PN` is the name of the recipe for which you want to enable automatic source revision updating.

## Debugging With the GNU Project Debugger (GDB) Remotely

GDB allows you to examine running programs, which in turn helps you to understand and fix problems. It also allows you to perform post-mortem style analysis of program crashes. GDB is available as a package within the Yocto Project and by default is installed in SDK images. See the "Images" chapter in the Yocto Project Reference Manual for a description of these images. You can find information on GDB at .

For best results, install `-dbg` packages for the applications you are going to debug. Doing so makes available extra debug symbols that give you more meaningful output.

Sometimes, due to memory or disk space constraints, it is not possible to use GDB directly on the remote target to debug applications. These constraints arise because GDB needs to load the debugging information and the binaries of the process being debugged. Additionally, GDB needs to perform many computations to locate information such as function names, variable names and values, stack traces and so forth - even before starting the debugging process. These extra computations place more load on the target system and can alter the characteristics of the program being debugged.

To help get past the previously mentioned constraints, you can use Gdbserver. Gdbserver runs on the remote target and does not load any debugging information from the debugged process. Instead, a GDB instance processes the debugging information that is run on a remote computer - the host GDB. The host GDB then sends control commands to Gdbserver to make it stop or start the debugged program, as well as read or write memory regions of that debugged program. All the debugging information loaded and processed as well as all the heavy debugging is done by the host GDB. Offloading these processes gives the Gdbserver running on the target a chance to remain small and fast.

Because the host GDB is responsible for loading the debugging information and for doing the necessary processing to make actual debugging happen, the user has to make sure the host can access the unstripped binaries complete with their debugging information and also be sure the target is compiled with no optimizations. The host GDB must also have local access to all the libraries used by the debugged program. Because Gdbserver does not need any local debugging information, the binaries on the remote target can remain stripped. However, the binaries must also be compiled without optimization so they match the host's binaries.

To remain consistent with GDB documentation and terminology, the binary being debugged on the remote target machine is referred to as the "inferior" binary. For documentation on GDB see the GDB site.

### Launching Gdbserver on the Target

First, make sure Gdbserver is installed on the target. If it is not, install the package `gdbserver`, which needs the `libthread-db1` package.

As an example, to launch Gdbserver on the target and make it ready to "debug" a program located at `/path/to/inferior`, connect to the target and launch:

         $ gdbserver localhost:2345 /path/to/inferior

Gdbserver should now be listening on port 2345 for debugging commands coming from a remote GDB process that is running on the host computer. Communication between Gdbserver and the host GDB are done using TCP. To use other communication protocols, please refer to the Gdbserver documentation.

### Launching GDB on the Host Computer

Running GDB on the host computer takes a number of stages. This section describes those stages.

#### Building the Cross-GDB Package

A suitable GDB cross-binary is required that runs on your host computer but also knows about the the ABI of the remote target. You can get this binary from the meta-toolchain. Here is an example:

         /usr/local/poky/eabi-glibc/arm/bin/arm-poky-linux-gnueabi-gdb

where `arm` is the target architecture and `linux-gnueabi` the target ABI.

Alternatively, you can use BitBake to build the `gdb-cross` binary. Here is an example:

         $ bitbake gdb-cross

Once the binary is built, you can find it here:

         tmp/sysroots/<host-arch>/usr/bin/<target-abi>-gdb

#### Making the Inferior Binaries Available

The inferior binary (complete with all debugging symbols), as well as any libraries (and their debugging symbols) on which the inferior binary depends, needs to be available. There are a number of ways you can make these items available.

Perhaps the easiest way is to have an SDK image that corresponds to the plain image installed on the device. In the case of `core-image-sato`, `core-image-sato-sdk` would contain suitable symbols. Because the SDK images already have the debugging symbols installed, it is just a question of expanding the archive to some location and then informing GDB.

Alternatively, the OpenEmbedded build system can build a custom directory of files for a specific debugging purpose by reusing its `tmp/rootfs` directory. This directory contains the contents of the last built image. This process assumes two things:

- The image running on the target was the last image to be built.

- The package (`foo` in the following example) that contains the inferior binary to be debugged has been built without optimization and has debugging information available.

The following steps show how to build the custom directory of files:

1. Install the package (`foo` in this case) to `tmp/rootfs`:

            $ tmp/sysroots/i686-linux/usr/bin/opkg-cl -f \
            tmp/work/<target-abi>/core-image-sato-1.0-r0/temp/opkg.conf -o \
            tmp/rootfs/ update

2. Install the debugging information:

            $ tmp/sysroots/i686-linux/usr/bin/opkg-cl -f \
            tmp/work/<target-abi>/core-image-sato-1.0-r0/temp/opkg.conf \
            -o tmp/rootfs install foo

            $ tmp/sysroots/i686-linux/usr/bin/opkg-cl -f \
            tmp/work/<target-abi>/core-image-sato-1.0-r0/temp/opkg.conf \
            -o tmp/rootfs install foo-dbg

#### Launch the Host GDB

To launch the host GDB, you run the `cross-gdb` binary and provide the inferior binary as part of the command line. For example, the following command form continues with the example used in the previous section. This command form loads the `foo` binary as well as the debugging information:

         $ <target-abi>-gdb rootfs/usr/bin/foo

Once the GDB prompt appears, you must instruct GDB to load all the libraries of the inferior binary from `tmp/rootfs` as follows:

         $ set solib-absolute-prefix /path/to/tmp/rootfs

The pathname `/path/to/tmp/rootfs` must either be the absolute path to `tmp/rootfs` or the location at which binaries with debugging information reside.

At this point you can have GDB connect to the Gdbserver that is running on the remote target by using the following command form:

         $ target remote remote-target-ip-address:2345

The `remote-target-ip-address` is the IP address of the remote target where the Gdbserver is running. Port 2345 is the port on which the GDBSERVER is running.

#### Using the Debugger

You can now proceed with debugging as normal - as if you were debugging on the local machine. For example, to instruct GDB to break in the "main" function and then continue with execution of the inferior binary use the following commands from within GDB:

         (gdb) break main
         (gdb) continue

For more information about using GDB, see the project's online documentation at .

## Profiling with OProfile

OProfile is a statistical profiler well suited for finding performance bottlenecks in both userspace software and in the kernel. This profiler provides answers to questions like "Which functions does my application spend the most time in when doing X?" Because the OpenEmbedded build system is well integrated with OProfile, it makes profiling applications on target hardware straightforward.

To use OProfile, you need an image that has OProfile installed. The easiest way to do this is with `tools-profile` in the `IMAGE_FEATURES` variable. You also need debugging symbols to be available on the system where the analysis takes place. You can gain access to the symbols by using `dbg-pkgs` in the `IMAGE_FEATURES` variable or by installing the appropriate `-dbg` packages.

For successful call graph analysis, the binaries must preserve the frame pointer register and should also be compiled with the `-fno-omit-framepointer` flag. You can achieve this by setting the `SELECTED_OPTIMIZATION` variable with the following options:

         -fexpensive-optimizations
         -fno-omit-framepointer
         -frename-registers
         -O2

You can also achieve it by setting the `DEBUG_BUILD` variable to "1" in the `local.conf` configuration file. If you use the `DEBUG_BUILD` variable, you will also add extra debug information that can make the debug packages large.

### Profiling on the Target

Using OProfile you can perform all the profiling work on the target device. A simple OProfile session might look like the following:

         # opcontrol --reset
         # opcontrol --start --separate=lib --no-vmlinux -c 5
                  .
                  .
            [do whatever is being profiled]
                  .
                  .
         # opcontrol --stop
         $ opreport -cl

In this example, the `reset` command clears any previously profiled data. The next command starts OProfile. The options used when starting the profiler separate dynamic library data within applications, disable kernel profiling, and enable callgraphing up to five levels deep.

To profile the kernel, you would specify the `--vmlinux=/path/to/vmlinux` option. The `vmlinux` file is usually in the source directory in the `/boot/` directory and must match the running kernel.

After you perform your profiling tasks, the next command stops the profiler. After that, you can view results with the `opreport` command with options to see the separate library symbols and callgraph information.

Callgraphing logs information about time spent in functions and about a function's calling function (parent) and called functions (children). The higher the callgraphing depth, the more accurate the results. However, higher depths also increase the logging overhead. Consequently, you should take care when setting the callgraphing depth.

On ARM, binaries need to have the frame pointer enabled for callgraphing to work. To accomplish this use the `-fno-omit-framepointer` option with `gcc`.

For more information on using OProfile, see the OProfile online documentation at .

### Using OProfileUI

A graphical user interface for OProfile is also available. You can download and build this interface from the Yocto Project at . If the "tools-profile" image feature is selected, all necessary binaries are installed onto the target device for OProfileUI interaction.

Even though the source directory usually includes all needed patches on the target device, you might find you need other OProfile patches for recent OProfileUI features. If so, see the OProfileUI README for the most recent information.

#### Online Mode

Using OProfile in online mode assumes a working network connection with the target hardware. With this connection, you just need to run "oprofile-server" on the device. By default, OProfile listens on port 4224.

You can change the port using the `--port` command-line option.

The client program is called `oprofile-viewer` and its UI is relatively straightforward. You access key functionality through the buttons on the toolbar, which are duplicated in the menus. Here are the buttons:

- Connect: Connects to the remote host. You can also supply the IP address or hostname.

- Disconnect: Disconnects from the target.

- Start: Starts profiling on the device.

- Stop: Stops profiling on the device and downloads the data to the local host. Stopping the profiler generates the profile and displays it in the viewer.

- Download: Downloads the data from the target and generates the profile, which appears in the viewer.

- Reset: Resets the sample data on the device. Resetting the data removes sample information collected from previous sampling runs. Be sure you reset the data if you do not want to include old sample information.

- Save: Saves the data downloaded from the target to another directory for later examination.

- Open: Loads previously saved data.

The client downloads the complete 'profile archive' from the target to the host for processing. This archive is a directory that contains the sample data, the object files, and the debug information for the object files. The archive is then converted using the `oparchconv` script, which is included in this distribution. The script uses `opimport` to convert the archive from the target to something that can be processed on the host.

Downloaded archives reside in the Build Directory in `/tmp` and are cleared up when they are no longer in use.

If you wish to perform kernel profiling, you need to be sure a `vmlinux` file that matches the running kernel is available. In the source directory, that file is usually located in `/boot/vmlinux-KERNELVERSION`, where `KERNEL-version` is the version of the kernel. The OpenEmbedded build system generates separate `vmlinux` packages for each kernel it builds. Thus, it should just be a question of making sure a matching package is installed (e.g. `opkg install kernel-vmlinux`. The files are automatically installed into development and profiling images alongside OProfile. A configuration option exists within the OProfileUI settings page that you can use to enter the location of the `vmlinux` file.

Waiting for debug symbols to transfer from the device can be slow, and it is not always necessary to actually have them on the device for OProfile use. All that is needed is a copy of the filesystem with the debug symbols present on the viewer system. The "Launching GDB on the Host Computer" section covers how to create such a directory with the source directory and how to use the OProfileUI Settings dialog to specify the location. If you specify the directory, it will be used when the file checksums match those on the system you are profiling.

#### Offline Mode

If network access to the target is unavailable, you can generate an archive for processing in `oprofile-viewer` as follows:

         # opcontrol --reset
         # opcontrol --start --separate=lib --no-vmlinux -c 5
                .
                .
         [do whatever is being profiled]
                .
                .
         # opcontrol --stop
         # oparchive -o my_archive

In the above example, `my_archive` is the name of the archive directory where you would like the profile archive to be kept. After the directory is created, you can copy it to another host and load it using `oprofile-viewer` open functionality. If necessary, the archive is converted.

## Maintaining Open Source License Compliance During Your Product's Lifecycle

One of the concerns for a development organization using open source software is how to maintain compliance with various open source licensing during the lifecycle of the product. While this section does not provide legal advice or comprehensively cover all scenarios, it does present methods that you can use to assist you in meeting the compliance requirements during a software release.

With hundreds of different open source licenses that the Yocto Project tracks, it is difficult to know the requirements of each and every license. However, we can begin to cover the requirements of the major FLOSS licenses, by assuming that there are three main areas of concern:

- Source code must be provided.

- License text for the software must be provided.

- Compilation scripts and modifications to the source code must be provided.

There are other requirements beyond the scope of these three and the methods described in this section (e.g. the mechanism through which source code is distributed). As different organizations have different methods of complying with open source licensing, this section is not meant to imply that there is only one single way to meet your compliance obligations, but rather to describe one method of achieving compliance.

The remainder of this section describes methods supported to meet the previously mentioned three requirements. Once you take steps to meet these requirements, and prior to releasing images, sources, and the build system, you should audit all artifacts to ensure completeness. The Yocto Project generates a license manifest during image creation that is located in `${DEPLOY_DIR}/licenses/<image_name-datestamp>` to assist with any audits.

### Providing the Source Code

Compliance activities should begin before you generate the final image. The first thing you should look at is the requirement that tops the list for most compliance groups - providing the source. The Yocto Project has a few ways of meeting this requirement.

One of the easiest ways to meet this requirement is to provide the entire `DL_DIR` used by the build. This method, however, has a few issues. The most obvious is the size of the directory since it includes all sources used in the build and not just the source used in the released image. It will include toolchain source, and other artifacts which you would not generally release. But, the more serious issue for most companies is accidental release of proprietary software. The Yocto Project provides an archiver class to help avoid some of these concerns.

Before you employ `DL_DIR` or the archiver class, you need to decide how you choose to provide source. The source archiver class can generate tarballs and SRPMs and can create them with various levels of compliance in mind. One way of doing this (but certainly not the only way) is to release just the original source as a tarball. You can do this by adding the following to the `local.conf` file found in the Build Directory:

         ARCHIVER_MODE ?= "original"
         ARCHIVER_CLASS = "${@'archive-${ARCHIVER_MODE}-source' if
         ARCHIVER_MODE != 'none' else ''}"
         INHERIT += "${ARCHIVER_CLASS}"
         SOURCE_ARCHIVE_PACKAGE_TYPE = "tar"

During the creation of your image, all GPL or other copyleft licensed source is placed within subdirectories of `DEPLOY_DIR/sources` based on the `LICENSE` for each recipe. Releasing the entire directory enables you to comply with requirements concerning providing the unmodified source. It is important to note that the size of the directory can get large.

A way to help mitigate the size issue is to only release tarballs for licenses that require the release of source. Let's assume you are only concerned with GPL code as identified with the following:

         $ cd poky/build/tmp/deploy/sources
         $ mkdir ~/gpl_source_release
         $ for x in `ls|grep GPL`; do cp -R $x/* ~/gpl_source_release; done

At this point, you could create a tarball from the `gpl_source_release` directory and provide that to the end user. This method would be a step toward achieving compliance with section 3a of GPLv2 and with section 6 of GPLv3.

### Providing License Text

One requirement that is often overlooked is inclusion of license text. This requirement also needs to be dealt with prior to generating the final image. Some licenses require the license text to accompany the binary. You can achieve this by adding the following to your `local.conf` file:

         COPY_LIC_MANIFEST = "1"
         COPY_LIC_DIRS = "1"

Adding these statements to the configuration file ensures that the licenses collected during package generation are included on your image. As the source archiver has already archived the original unmodified source which would contain the license files, you would have already met the requirements for inclusion of the license information with source as defined by the GPL and other open source licenses.

### Providing Compilation Scripts and Source Code Modifications

At this point, we have addressed all we need to address prior to generating the image. The next two requirements are addressed during the final packaging of the release.

By releasing the version of the OpenEmbedded build system and the layers used during the build, you will be providing both compilation scripts and the source code modifications in one step.

If the deployment team has a BSP layer and a distro layer, and those those layers are used to patch, compile, package, or modify (in any way) any open source software included in your released images, you may be required to to release those layers under section 3 of GPLv2 or section 1 of GPLv3. One way of doing that is with a clean checkout of the version of the Yocto Project and layers used during your build. Here is an example:

         # We built using the &DISTRO_NAME; branch of the poky repo
         $ git clone -b &DISTRO_NAME; git://git.yoctoproject.org/poky
         $ cd poky
         # We built using the release_branch for our layers
         $ git clone -b release_branch git://git.mycompany.com/meta-my-bsp-layer
         $ git clone -b release_branch git://git.mycompany.com/meta-my-software-layer
         # clean up the .git repos
         $ find . -name ".git" -type d -exec rm -rf {} \;

One thing a development organization might want to consider for end-user convenience is to modify `meta-yocto/conf/bblayers.conf.sample` to ensure that when the end user utilizes the released build system to build an image, the development organization's layers are included in the `bblayers.conf` file automatically:

         # LAYER_CONF_VERSION is increased each time build/conf/bblayers.conf
         # changes incompatibly
         LCONF_VERSION = "6"

         BBPATH = "${TOPDIR}"
         BBFILES ?= ""

         BBLAYERS ?= " \
           ##COREBASE##/meta \
           ##COREBASE##/meta-yocto \
           ##COREBASE##/meta-yocto-bsp \
           ##COREBASE##/meta-my-bsp-layer \
           ##COREBASE##/meta-my-software-layer \
           "

Creating and providing an archive of the metadata layers (recipes, configuration files, and so forth) enables you to meet your requirements to include the scripts to control compilation as well as any modifications to the original source.