\input texinfo @setfilename ld.info @syncodeindex ky cp @smallbook @c @cropmarks @ifinfo @format START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * Ld: (ld). The GNU linker. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY @end format @end ifinfo @ifinfo This file documents the GNU linker LD. Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. @ignore Permission is granted to process this file through Tex and print the results, provided the printed document carries copying permission notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph (this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). @end ignore @end ifinfo @iftex @finalout @setchapternewpage odd @settitle Using LD, the GNU linker @titlepage @title Using ld @subtitle The GNU linker @sp 1 @subtitle @code{ld} version 2 @subtitle March 1993 @author Steve Chamberlain and Roland Pesch @author Cygnus Support @page @tex \def\$#1${{#1}} % Kluge: collect RCS revision info without $...$ \xdef\manvers{\$Revision$} % For use in headers, footers too {\parskip=0pt \hfill Cygnus Support\par \hfill steve\@cygnus.com, pesch\@cygnus.com\par \hfill {\it Using LD, the GNU linker}, \manvers\par \hfill \TeX{}info \texinfoversion\par } \global\parindent=0pt % Steve likes it this way. @end tex Edited by Jeffrey Osier (@code{jeffrey@@cygnus.com}), March 1993. @vskip 0pt plus 1filll Copyright @copyright{} 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. @end titlepage @end iftex @c FIXME: Talk about importance of *order* of args, cmds to linker! @node Top, Overview, (dir), (dir) @ifinfo This file documents the GNU linker ld. @end ifinfo @menu * Overview:: Overview * Invocation:: Invocation * Commands:: Command Language * Machine Dependent:: Machine Dependent Features * BFD:: BFD * MRI:: MRI Compatible Script Files * Index:: Index --- The Detailed Node Listing --- Invocation * Options:: Command Line Options * Environment:: Environment Variables Command Language * Scripts:: Linker Scripts * Expressions:: Expressions * MEMORY:: MEMORY Command * SECTIONS:: SECTIONS Command * Entry Point:: The Entry Point * Other Commands:: Other Commands Expressions * Integers:: Integers * Symbols:: Symbol Names * Location Counter:: The Location Counter * Operators:: Operators * Evaluation:: Evaluation * Assignment:: Assignment: Defining Symbols * Built-ins:: Built-In Functions SECTIONS Command * Section Definition:: Section Definitions * Section Contents:: Section Contents * Section Options:: Optional Section Attributes Machine Dependent Features * H8/300:: @code{ld} and the H8/300 * i960:: @code{ld} and the Intel 960 family BFD * BFD outline:: How it works: an outline of BFD * BFD information loss:: Information Loss * Mechanism:: Mechanism @end menu @node Overview, Invocation, Top, Top @chapter Overview @cindex GNU linker @cindex what is this? @code{ld} combines a number of object and archive files, relocates their data and ties up symbol references. Often the last step in building a new compiled program to run is a call to @code{ld}. @code{ld} accepts Linker Command Language files written in a superset of AT&T's Link Editor Command Language syntax, to provide explicit and total control over the linking process. This version of @code{ld} uses the general purpose BFD libraries to operate on object files. This allows @code{ld} to read, combine, and write object files in many different formats---for example, COFF or @code{a.out}. Different formats may be linked together to produce any available kind of object file. @xref{BFD} for a list of formats supported on various architectures. Aside from its flexibility, the GNU linker is more helpful than other linkers in providing diagnostic information. Many linkers abandon execution immediately upon encountering an error; whenever possible, @code{ld} continues executing, allowing you to identify other errors (or, in some cases, to get an output file in spite of the error). @node Invocation, Commands, Overview, Top @chapter Invocation The GNU linker @code{ld} is meant to cover a broad range of situations, and to be as compatible as possible with other linkers. As a result, you have many choices to control its behavior through the command line, and through environment variables. @menu * Options:: Command Line Options * Environment:: Environment Variables @end menu @node Options, Environment, Invocation, Invocation @section Command Line Options @cindex command line @cindex options Here is a sketch of the options you can use on the @code{ld} command line: @smallexample ld [-o @var{output} ] @var{objfiles}@dots{} [ -A@var{architecture} ] [ -b @var{input-format} ] [ -Bstatic ] [ -c @var{MRI-commandfile} ] [ -d | -dc | -dp ] [ -defsym @var{symbol}=@var{expression} ] [ -e @var{entry} ] [ -F ] [ -F @var{format} ] [ -format @var{input-format} ] [ -g ] [ -i ] [ -l@var{ar} ] [ -L@var{searchdir} ] [ -M | -m ] [ -n | -N ] [ -noinhibit-exec ] [ -R @var{filename} ] [ -relax ] [ -r | -Ur ] [ -S ] [ -s ] [ -T @var{commandfile} ] [ -Ttext @var{textorg} ] [ -Tdata @var{dataorg} ] [ -Tbss @var{bssorg} ] [ -t ] [ -u @var{sym}] [-v] [ -X ] [ -x ] [ -y@var{symbol} ] [ @{ @var{script} @} ] @end smallexample This plethora of command-line options may seem intimidating, but in actual practice few of them are used in any particular context. @cindex standard Unix system For instance, a frequent use of @code{ld} is to link standard Unix object files on a standard, supported Unix system. On such a system, to link a file @code{hello.o}: @example $ ld -o @var{output} /lib/crt0.o hello.o -lc @end example This tells @code{ld} to produce a file called @var{output} as the result of linking the file @code{/lib/crt0.o} with @code{hello.o} and the library @code{libc.a} which will come from the standard search directories. (See the discussion of the @samp{-l} flag below.) The command-line options to @code{ld} may be specified in any order, and may be repeated at will. For the most part, repeating an option with a different argument will either have no further effect, or override prior occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of an option. The exceptions---which may meaningfully be used more than once---are @code{-A}, @code{-b} (or its synonym @code{-format}), @code{-defsym}, @code{-L}, @code{-l}, @code{-R}, and @code{-u}. @cindex object files The list of object files to be linked together, shown as @var{objfiles}, may follow, precede, or be mixed in with command-line options; save that an @var{objfiles} argument may not be placed between an option flag and its argument. Usually the linker is invoked with at least one object file, but other forms of binary input files can also be specified with @code{-l}, @code{-R}, and the script command language. If @emph{no} binary input files at all are specified, the linker does not produce any output, and issues the message @samp{No input files}. Option arguments must either follow the option letter without intervening whitespace, or be given as separate arguments immediately following the option that requires them. @table @code @item @var{objfiles}@dots{} The object files @var{objfiles} to be linked. @cindex architectures @kindex -A@var{arch} @item -A@var{architecture} In the current release of @code{ld}, this option is useful only for the Intel 960 family of architectures. In that @code{ld} configuration, the @var{architecture} argument identifies the particular architecture in the 960 family, enabling some safeguards and modifying the archive-library search path. @xref{i960,,@code{ld} and the Intel 960 family}, for details. Future releases of @code{ld} may support similar functionality for other architecture families. @cindex binary input format @kindex -b @var{format} @cindex input format @item -b @var{input-format} @cindex input format Specify the binary format for input object files that follow this option on the command line. You don't usually need to specify this, as @code{ld} is configured to expect as a default input format the most usual format on each machine. @var{input-format} is a text string, the name of a particular format supported by the BFD libraries. @w{@code{-format @var{input-format}}} has the same effect. @xref{BFD}. You may want to use this option if you are linking files with an unusual binary format. You can also use @code{-b} to switch formats explicitly (when linking object files of different formats), by including @code{-b @var{input-format}} before each group of object files in a particular format. The default format is taken from the environment variable @code{GNUTARGET}. @xref{Environment}. You can also define the input format from a script, using the command @code{TARGET}; see @ref{Other Commands}. @kindex -Bstatic @item -Bstatic This flag is accepted for command-line compatibility with the SunOS linker, but has no effect on @code{ld}. @kindex -c @var{MRI-cmdfile} @cindex compatibility, MRI @item -c @var{MRI-commandfile} For compatibility with linkers produced by MRI, @code{ld} accepts script files written in an alternate, restricted command language, described in @ref{MRI,,MRI Compatible Script Files}. Introduce MRI script files with the option flag @samp{-c}; use the @samp{-T} option to run linker scripts written in the general-purpose @code{ld} scripting language. @cindex common allocation @kindex -d @item -d @kindex -dc @itemx -dc @kindex -dp @itemx -dp These three options are equivalent; multiple forms are supported for compatibility with other linkers. Use any of them to make @code{ld} assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable output file is specified (@code{-r}). The script command @code{FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION} has the same effect. @xref{Other Commands}. @cindex symbols, from command line @kindex -defsym @var{symbol}=@var{exp} @item -defsym @var{symbol}=@var{expression} Create a global symbol in the output file, containing the absolute address given by @var{expression}. You may use this option as many times as necessary to define multiple symbols in the command line. A limited form of arithmetic is supported for the @var{expression} in this context: you may give a hexadecimal constant or the name of an existing symbol, or use @code{+} and @code{-} to add or subtract hexadecimal constants or symbols. If you need more elaborate expressions, consider using the linker command language from a script (@pxref{Assignment, , Assignment: Symbol Definitions}). @emph{Note:} there should be no white space between @var{symbol}, the equals sign (``@key{=}''), and @var{expression}. @cindex entry point, from command line @kindex -e @var{entry} @item -e @var{entry} Use @var{entry} as the explicit symbol for beginning execution of your program, rather than the default entry point. @xref{Entry Point}, for a discussion of defaults and other ways of specifying the entry point. @ignore @cindex fill, from command line @kindex -f @var{fill} @c -f in older GNU linker, not in new @item -f @var{fill} Sets the default fill pattern for ``holes'' in the output file to the lowest two bytes of the expression specified. Holes are created when you advance the location counter (@xref{Location Counter}), or when there is a gap between explicitly specified section addresses (@xref{Section Options}). @end ignore @kindex -F @item -F @itemx -F@var{format} Some older linkers used this option throughout a compilation toolchain for specifying object-file format for both input and output object files. The mechanisms @code{ld} uses for this purpose (the @code{-b} or @code{-format} options for input files, the @code{TARGET} command in linker scripts for output files, the @code{GNUTARGET} environment variable) are more flexible, but @code{ld} accepts (and ignores) the @code{-F} option flag for compatibility with scripts written to call the old linker. @kindex -format @item -format @var{input-format} Synonym for @code{-b} @var{input-format}. @kindex -g @item -g Accepted, but ignored; provided for compatibility with other tools. @kindex -i @cindex incremental link @item -i Perform an incremental link (same as option @code{-r}). @cindex archive files, from cmd line @kindex -l@var{ar} @item -l@var{ar} Add an archive file @var{ar} to the list of files to link. This option may be used any number of times. @code{ld} will search its path-list for occurrences of @code{lib@var{ar}.a} for every @var{ar} specified. @cindex search directory, from cmd line @kindex -L@var{dir} @item -L@var{searchdir} This command adds path @var{searchdir} to the list of paths that @code{ld} will search for archive libraries. You may use this option any number of times. The default set of paths searched (without being specified with @code{-L}) depends on what emulation mode @code{ld} is using, and in some cases also on how it was configured. @xref{Environment}. The paths can also be specified in a link script with the @code{SEARCH_DIR} command. @cindex link map @kindex -M @item -M @kindex -m @itemx -m Print (to the standard output file) a link map---diagnostic information about where symbols are mapped by @code{ld}, and information on global common storage allocation. @kindex -N @cindex read/write from cmd line @kindex OMAGIC @item -N Specifies readable and writable @code{text} and @code{data} sections. If the output format supports Unix style magic numbers, the output is marked as @code{OMAGIC}. When you use the @samp{-N} option, the linker does not page-align the data segment. @item -n @kindex -n @cindex read-only text @kindex NMAGIC Sets the text segment to be read only, and @code{NMAGIC} is written if possible. @item -noinhibit-exec @cindex output file after errors @kindex -noinhibit-exec Normally, the linker will not produce an output file if it encounters errors during the link process. With this flag, you can specify that you wish the output file retained whenever the executable output file is still usable. (Otherwise, @code{ld} exits without writing an output file when it issues any error whatsoever.) @item -o @var{output} @kindex -o @var{output} @cindex naming the output file @var{output} is a name for the program produced by @code{ld}; if this option is not specified, the name @samp{a.out} is used by default. The script command @code{OUTPUT} can also specify the output file name. @item -R @var{filename} @kindex -R @var{file} @cindex symbol-only input Read symbol names and their addresses from @var{filename}, but do not relocate it or include it in the output. This allows your output file to refer symbolically to absolute locations of memory defined in other programs. @item -relax @kindex -relax @cindex synthesizing linker @cindex relaxing addressing modes An option with machine dependent effects. Currently this option is only supported on the H8/300; see @ref{H8/300,,@code{ld} and the H8/300}. On some platforms, use this option to perform global optimizations that become possible when the linker resolves addressing in your program, such as relaxing address modes and synthesizing new instructions in the output object file. On platforms where this is not supported, @samp{-relax} is accepted, but has no effect. @item -r @cindex partial link @cindex relocatable output @kindex -r Generates relocatable output---i.e., generate an output file that can in turn serve as input to @code{ld}. This is often called @dfn{partial linking}. As a side effect, in environments that support standard Unix magic numbers, this option also sets the output file's magic number to @code{OMAGIC}. @c ; see @code{-N}. If this option is not specified, an absolute file is produced. When linking C++ programs, this option @emph{will not} resolve references to constructors; @code{-Ur} is an alternative. @refill This option does the same as @code{-i}. @item -S @kindex -S @cindex strip debugger symbols Omits debugger symbol information (but not all symbols) from the output file. @item -s @kindex -s @cindex strip all symbols Omits all symbol information from the output file. @item @{ @var{script} @} @kindex @{ @var{script} @} @cindex scripts on command line You can, if you wish, include a script of linker commands directly in the command line instead of referring to it via an input file. When the character @samp{@{} occurs on the command line, the linker switches to interpreting the command language until the end of the list of commands is reached; the end is indicated with a closing brace @samp{@}}. @code{ld} does not recognize other command-line options while parsing the script. @xref{Commands}, for a description of the command language. @item -Tbss @var{bssorg} @kindex -Tbss @var{bssorg} @itemx -Tdata @var{dataorg} @kindex -Tdata @var{dataorg} @itemx -Ttext @var{textorg} @kindex -Ttext @var{textorg} @cindex segment origins, cmd line Use @var{org} as the starting address for---respectively---the @code{bss}, @code{data}, or the @code{text} segment of the output file. Any @var{org} value must be a single hexadecimal integer; in this case (for compatibility with other linkers), you may omit the leading @samp{0x} usually associated with hexadecimal values. @item -T @var{commandfile} @itemx -T@var{commandfile} @kindex -T @var{script} @cindex script files Directs @code{ld} to read link commands from the file @var{commandfile}. These commands will completely override @code{ld}'s default link format (rather than adding to it); @var{commandfile} must specify everything necessary to describe the target format. @xref{Commands}. You may also include a script of link commands directly in the command line by bracketing it between @samp{@{} and @samp{@}}. @item -t @kindex -t @cindex verbose @cindex input files, displaying Prints names of input files as @code{ld} processes them. @item -u @var{sym} @kindex -u @var{sym} @cindex undefined symbol Forces @var{sym} to be entered in the output file as an undefined symbol. This may, for example, trigger linking of additional modules from standard libraries. @code{-u} may be repeated with different option arguments to enter additional undefined symbols. @c Nice idea, but no such command: This option is equivalent @c to the @code{EXTERN} linker command. @item -Ur @kindex -Ur @cindex constructors For anything other than C++ programs, this option is equivalent to @code{-r}: it generates relocatable output---i.e., an output file that can in turn serve as input to @code{ld}. When linking C++ programs, @code{-Ur} @emph{will} resolve references to constructors, unlike @code{-r}. @item -v @kindex -v @cindex version Display the version number for @code{ld}. @item -X @kindex -X @cindex local symbols, deleting @cindex L, deleting symbols beginning If @code{-s} or @code{-S} is also specified, delete only local symbols beginning with @samp{L}. @item -x @kindex -x @cindex deleting local symbols If @code{-s} or @code{-S} is also specified, delete all local symbols, not just those beginning with @samp{L}. @item -y @kindex -y@var{symbol} @cindex symbol tracing Prints the name of each linked file in which @var{symbol} appears. The option may be given any number of times. On many systems it is necessary to prepend an underscore. This option is useful when you have an undefined symbol in your link but don't know where the reference is coming from. @ignore @c -z in older GNU linker, not in new @item -z @kindex -z @cindex read-only text Specifies a read-only, demand pageable, and shared @code{text} segment. If the output format supports Unix-style magic numbers, @code{-z} also marks the output as @code{ZMAGIC}, the default. @c why was following here?. Is it useful to say '-z -r' for @c instance, or is this just a ref to other ways of setting @c magic no? Specifying a relocatable output file (@code{-r}) will also set the magic number to @code{OMAGIC}. See description of @code{-N}. @end ignore @end table @node Environment, , Options, Invocation @section Environment Variables You can change the behavior of @code{ld} with the environment variable @code{GNUTARGET}. @ignore and @code{LDEMULATION}. Depending on the setting of the latter, other environment variables may be used as well. @end ignore @kindex GNUTARGET @cindex default input format @code{GNUTARGET} determines the input-file object format if you don't use @code{-b} (or its synonym @code{-format}). Its value should be one of the BFD names for an input format (@pxref{BFD}). If there is no @code{GNUTARGET} in the environment, @code{ld} uses the natural format of the host. If @code{GNUTARGET} is set to @code{default} then BFD attempts to discover the input format by examining binary input files; this method often succeeds, but there are potential ambiguities, since there is no method of ensuring that the magic number used to flag object-file formats is unique. However, the configuration procedure for BFD on each system places the conventional format for that system first in the search-list, so ambiguities are resolved in favor of convention. @ignore @kindex LDEMULATION @cindex emulation @cindex environment vars @code{LDEMULATION} controls some aspects of @code{ld}'s dominant personality. Although @code{ld} is flexible enough to permit its use in many contexts regardless of configuration, you can use this variable to make it act more like one or another older linker by default. @cindex defaults @cindex library paths, default In particular, the value of @code{LDEMULATION} controls what default linker script is used (thereby controlling the default input and output formats; @pxref{BFD}); what default paths are searched for archive libraries; and in some cases whether additional linker script commands are available. Here is the current set of emulations available: @table @code @item LDEMULATION=gld @kindex gld @cindex emulating old GNU linker Emulate the older GNU linker. When this emulation is selected, the default library search paths are @example /lib /usr/lib /usr/local/lib/lib @end example @noindent The default output format is set to @code{a.out-generic-big}, and the default machine is the system's configured BFD default. @item LDEMULATION=gld68k @kindex gld68k @cindex m68k A variant of the @code{gld} emulation; only differs in specifically setting the default BFD machine as @code{m68k}. @item LDEMULATION=gld960 @itemx LDEMULATION=lnk960 Emulate older linkers for the i960 family; see @ref{i960,,@code{ld} and the Intel 960 family}, for details. @item LDEMULATION=gldm88kbcs Configure the linker for the Motorola 88K family. @xref{m88k,,@code{gld} and the Motorola 880x0 family}, for details. @item LDEMULATION=vanilla @kindex vanilla @cindex emulation, disabling @cindex disabling emulation This is the least specific setting for @code{ld}. You can set @code{LDEMULATION=vanilla} to disable emulation of other linkers. This setting makes @code{ld} take the default machine from the BFD configuration on your system; @code{a.out-generic-big} is the default target. No other defaults are specified. @end table @end ignore @node Commands, Machine Dependent, Invocation, Top @chapter Command Language @cindex command files The command language allows explicit control over the link process, allowing complete specification of the mapping between the linker's input files and its output. This includes: @itemize @bullet @item input files @item file formats @item output file format @item addresses of sections @item placement of common blocks @end itemize You may supply a command file (also known as a link script) to the linker either explicitly through the @code{-T} option, or implicitly as an ordinary file. If the linker opens a file which it cannot recognize as a supported object or archive format, it tries to interpret the file as a command file. You can also include a script directly on the @code{ld} command line, delimited by the characters @samp{@{} and @samp{@}}. @menu * Scripts:: Linker Scripts * Expressions:: Expressions * MEMORY:: MEMORY Command * SECTIONS:: SECTIONS Command * Entry Point:: The Entry Point * Other Commands:: Other Commands @end menu @node Scripts, Expressions, Commands, Commands @section Linker Scripts The @code{ld} command language is a collection of statements; some are simple keywords setting a particular flag, some are used to select and group input files or name output files; and two particular statement types have a fundamental and pervasive impact on the linking process. @cindex fundamental script commands @cindex commands, fundamental @cindex output file layout @cindex layout of output file The most fundamental command of the @code{ld} command language is the @code{SECTIONS} command (@pxref{SECTIONS}). Every meaningful command script must have a @code{SECTIONS} command: it specifies a ``picture'' of the output file's layout, in varying degrees of detail. No other command is required in all cases. The @code{MEMORY} command complements @code{SECTIONS} by describing the available memory in the target architecture. This command is optional; if you don't use a @code{MEMORY} command, @code{ld} assumes sufficient memory is available in a contiguous block for all output. @xref{MEMORY}. @cindex comments You may include comments in linker scripts just as in C: delimited by @samp{/*} and @samp{*/}. As in C, comments are syntactically equivalent to whitespace. @node Expressions, MEMORY, Scripts, Commands @section Expressions @cindex expression syntax @cindex arithmetic Many useful commands involve arithmetic expressions. The syntax for expressions in the command language is identical to that of C expressions, with the following features: @itemize @bullet @item All expressions evaluated as integers and are of ``long'' or ``unsigned long'' type. @item All constants are integers. @item All of the C arithmetic operators are provided. @item You may reference, define, and create global variables. @item You may call special purpose built-in functions. @end itemize @menu * Integers:: Integers * Symbols:: Symbol Names * Location Counter:: The Location Counter * Operators:: Operators * Evaluation:: Evaluation * Assignment:: Assignment: Defining Symbols * Built-ins:: Built-In Functions @end menu @node Integers, Symbols, Expressions, Expressions @subsection Integers @cindex integer notation @cindex octal integers An octal integer is @samp{0} followed by zero or more of the octal digits (@samp{01234567}). @example _as_octal = 0157255; @end example @cindex decimal integers A decimal integer starts with a non-zero digit followed by zero or more digits (@samp{0123456789}). @example _as_decimal = 57005; @end example @cindex hexadecimal integers @kindex 0x A hexadecimal integer is @samp{0x} or @samp{0X} followed by one or more hexadecimal digits chosen from @samp{0123456789abcdefABCDEF}. @example _as_hex = 0xdead; @end example @cindex negative integers Decimal integers have the usual values. To write a negative integer, use the prefix operator @samp{-}; @pxref{Operators}. @example _as_neg = -57005; @end example @cindex scaled integers @cindex K and M integer suffixes @cindex M and K integer suffixes @cindex suffixes for integers @cindex integer suffixes Additionally the suffixes @code{K} and @code{M} may be used to scale a constant by @c TEXI2ROFF-KILL @ifinfo @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL @code{1024} or @code{1024*1024} @c TEXI2ROFF-KILL @end ifinfo @tex ${\rm 1024}$ or ${\rm 1024}^2$ @end tex @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL respectively. For example, the following all refer to the same quantity:@refill @example _fourk_1 = 4K; _fourk_2 = 4096; _fourk_3 = 0x1000; @end example @node Symbols, Location Counter, Integers, Expressions @subsection Symbol Names @cindex symbol names @cindex names @cindex quoted symbol names @kindex " Unless quoted, symbol names start with a letter, underscore, point or hyphen and may include any letters, underscores, digits, points, and minus signs. Unquoted symbol names must not conflict with any keywords. You can specify a symbol which contains odd characters or has the same name as a keyword, by surrounding the symbol name in double quotes: @example "SECTION" = 9; "with a space" = "also with a space" + 10; @end example @node Location Counter, Operators, Symbols, Expressions @subsection The Location Counter @kindex . @cindex dot @cindex location counter @cindex current output location The special linker variable @dfn{dot} @samp{.} always contains the current output location counter. Since the @code{.} always refers to a location in an output section, it must always appear in an expression within a @code{SECTIONS} command. The @code{.} symbol may appear anywhere that an ordinary symbol is allowed in an expression, but its assignments have a side effect. Assigning a value to the @code{.} symbol will cause the location counter to be moved. @cindex holes This may be used to create holes in the output section. The location counter may never be moved backwards. @example SECTIONS @{ output : @{ file1(.text) . = . + 1000; file2(.text) . += 1000; file3(.text) @} = 0x1234; @} @end example @noindent In the previous example, @code{file1} is located at the beginning of the output section, then there is a 1000 byte gap. Then @code{file2} appears, also with a 1000 byte gap following before @code{file3} is loaded. The notation @samp{= 0x1234} specifies what data to write in the gaps (@pxref{Section Options}). @node Operators, Evaluation, Location Counter, Expressions @subsection Operators @cindex Operators for arithmetic @cindex arithmetic operators @cindex precedence in expressions The linker recognizes the standard C set of arithmetic operators, with the standard bindings and precedence levels: @c TEXI2ROFF-KILL @ifinfo @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL @example precedence associativity Operators Notes (highest) 1 left ! - ~ (1) 2 left * / % 3 left + - 4 left >> << 5 left == != > < <= >= 6 left & 7 left | 8 left && 9 left || 10 right ? : 11 right &= += -= *= /= (2) (lowest) @end example Notes: (1) Prefix operators (2) @xref{Assignment} @c TEXI2ROFF-KILL @end ifinfo @tex \vskip \baselineskip %"lispnarrowing" is the extra indent used generally for @example \hskip\lispnarrowing\vbox{\offinterlineskip \hrule \halign {\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ #\ \hfil&\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ #\ \hfil&\vrule#&\strut\hfil\ {\tt #}\ \hfil&\vrule#\cr height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr &Precedence&& Associativity &&{\rm Operators}&\cr height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr \noalign{\hrule} height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr &highest&&&&&\cr % '176 is tilde, '~' in tt font &1&&left&&\qquad- \char'176\ !\qquad\dag&\cr &2&&left&&* / \%&\cr &3&&left&&+ -&\cr &4&&left&&>> <<&\cr &5&&left&&== != > < <= >=&\cr &6&&left&&\&&\cr &7&&left&&|&\cr &8&&left&&{\&\&}&\cr &9&&left&&||&\cr &10&&right&&? :&\cr &11&&right&&\qquad\&= += -= *= /=\qquad\ddag&\cr &lowest&&&&&\cr height2pt&\omit&&\omit&&\omit&\cr} \hrule} @end tex @iftex { @obeylines@parskip=0pt@parindent=0pt @dag@quad Prefix operators. @ddag@quad @xref{Assignment}. } @end iftex @c END TEXI2ROFF-KILL @node Evaluation, Assignment, Operators, Expressions @subsection Evaluation @cindex lazy evaluation @cindex expression evaluation order The linker uses ``lazy evaluation'' for expressions; it only calculates an expression when absolutely necessary. The linker needs the value of the start address, and the lengths of memory regions, in order to do any linking at all; these values are computed as soon as possible when the linker reads in the command file. However, other values (such as symbol values) are not known or needed until after storage allocation. Such values are evaluated later, when other information (such as the sizes of output sections) is available for use in the symbol assignment expression. @node Assignment, Built-ins, Evaluation, Expressions @subsection Assignment: Defining Symbols @cindex assignment in scripts @cindex symbol definition, scripts @cindex variables, defining You may create global symbols, and assign values (addresses) to global symbols, using any of the C assignment operators: @table @code @item @var{symbol} = @var{expression} ; @itemx @var{symbol} &= @var{expression} ; @itemx @var{symbol} += @var{expression} ; @itemx @var{symbol} -= @var{expression} ; @itemx @var{symbol} *= @var{expression} ; @itemx @var{symbol} /= @var{expression} ; @end table Two things distinguish assignment from other operators in @code{ld} expressions. @itemize @bullet @item Assignment may only be used at the root of an expression; @samp{a=b+3;} is allowed, but @samp{a+b=3;} is an error. @kindex ; @cindex semicolon @item You must place a trailing semicolon (``@key{;}'') at the end of an assignment statement. @end itemize Assignment statements may appear: @itemize @bullet @item as commands in their own right in an @code{ld} script; or @item as independent statements within a @code{SECTIONS} command; or @item as part of the contents of a section definition in a @code{SECTIONS} command. @end itemize The first two cases are equivalent in effect---both define a symbol with an absolute address; the last case defines a symbol whose address is relative to a particular section (@pxref{SECTIONS}). @cindex absolute and relocatable symbols @cindex relocatable and absolute symbols @cindex symbols, relocatable and absolute When a linker expression is evaluated and assigned to a variable, it is given either an absolute or a relocatable type. An absolute expression type is one in which the symbol contains the value that it will have in the output file, a relocateable expression type is one in which the value is expressed as a fixed offset from the base of a section. The type of the expression is controlled by its position in the script file. A symbol assigned within a section definition is created relative to the base of the section; a symbol assigned in any other place is created as an absolute symbol. Since a symbol created within a section definition is relative to the base of the section, it will remain relocatable if relocatable output is requested. A symbol may be created with an absolute value even when assigned to within a section definition by using the absolute assignment function @code{ABSOLUTE}. For example, to create an absolute symbol whose address is the last byte of an output section named @code{.data}: @example SECTIONS@{ @dots{} .data : @{ *(.data) _edata = ABSOLUTE(.) ; @} @dots{} @} @end example The linker tries to put off the evaluation of an assignment until all the terms in the source expression are known (@pxref{Evaluation}). For instance the sizes of sections cannot be known until after allocation, so assignments dependent upon these are not performed until after allocation. Some expressions, such as those depending upon the location counter @dfn{dot}, @samp{.} must be evaluated during allocation. If the result of an expression is required, but the value is not available, then an error results. For example, a script like the following @example SECTIONS @{ @dots{} text 9+this_isnt_constant : @{ @dots{} @} @dots{} @} @end example @kindex Non constant expression @noindent will cause the error message ``@code{Non constant expression for initial address}''. @node Built-ins, , Assignment, Expressions @subsection Built-In Functions @cindex functions in expression language The command language includes a number of special purpose built-in functions for use in link script expressions. @table @code @item ABSOLUTE(@var{exp}) @kindex ABSOLUTE(@var{exp}) @cindex expression, absolute returns the absolute value of the expression @var{exp}. Primarily useful to assign an absolute value to a symbol within a section definition, where symbol values are normally section-relative. @item ADDR(@var{section}) @kindex ADDR(@var{section}) @cindex section address returns the absolute address of the named @var{section}. Your script must previously have defined the location of that section. In the following example the @code{symbol_1} and @code{symbol_2} are assigned identical values: @example SECTIONS@{ @dots{} .output1 : @{ start_of_output_1 = ABSOLUTE(.); @dots{} @} .output : @{ symbol_1 = ADDR(.output1); symbol_2 = start_of_output_1; @} @dots{} @} @end example @item ALIGN(@var{exp}) @kindex ALIGN(@var{exp}) @cindex rounding up location counter returns the result of the current location counter (@code{.}) aligned to the next @var{exp} boundary. @var{exp} must be an expression whose value is a power of two. This is equivalent to @example (. + @var{exp} - 1) & ~(@var{exp} - 1) @end example @code{ALIGN} doesn't change the value of the location counter---it just does arithmetic on it. As an example, to align the output @code{.data} section to the next @code{0x2000} byte boundary after the preceding section and to set a variable within the section to the next @code{0x8000} boundary after the input sections: @example SECTIONS@{ @dots{} .data ALIGN(0x2000): @{ *(.data) variable = ALIGN(0x8000); @} @dots{} @} @end example @noindent The first use of @code{ALIGN} in this example specifies the location of a section because it is used as the optional @var{start} attribute of a section definition (@pxref{Section Options}). The second use simply defines the value of a variable. The built-in @code{NEXT} is closely related to @code{ALIGN}. @item DEFINED(@var{symbol}) @kindex DEFINED(@var{symbol}) @cindex symbol defaults Returns @code{1} if @var{symbol} is in the linker global symbol table and is defined, otherwise it returns @code{0}. You can use this to provide default values for symbols. For example, this command-file fragment shows how to set a global symbol @code{begin} to the first location in the @code{.text} section---but if a symbol called @code{begin} already existed, its value is preserved: @smallexample SECTIONS@{ @dots{} .text : @{ begin = DEFINED(begin) ? begin : . ; @dots{} @} @dots{} @} @end smallexample @item NEXT(@var{exp}) @kindex NEXT(@var{exp}) @cindex unallocated address, next Returns the next unallocated address that is a multiple of @var{exp}. This command is closely related to @code{ALIGN(@var{exp})}; unless you use the @code{MEMORY} command to define discontinuous memory for the output file, the two commands are equivalent. @item SIZEOF(@var{section}) @kindex SIZEOF(@var{section}) @cindex section size returns the size in bytes of the named @var{section}, if the section has been allocated. In the following example the @code{symbol_1} and @code{symbol_2} are assigned identical values: @example SECTIONS@{ @dots{} .output @{ .start = . ; @dots{} .end = . ; @} symbol_1 = .end - .start ; symbol_2 = SIZEOF(.output); @dots{} @} @end example @item SIZEOF_HEADERS @kindex SIZEOF_HEADERS @cindex header size @itemx sizeof_headers @kindex sizeof_headers the size in bytes of the output file's headers. You can use this number as the start address of the first section, if you choose, to facilitate paging. @end table @node MEMORY, SECTIONS, Expressions, Commands @section MEMORY Command @kindex MEMORY @cindex regions of memory @cindex discontinuous memory @cindex allocating memory The linker's default configuration permits allocation of all memory. You can override this by using the @code{MEMORY} command. The @code{MEMORY} command describes the location and size of blocks of memory in the target. By using it carefully, you can describe which memory regions may be used by the linker, and which memory regions it must avoid. The linker does not shuffle sections to fit into the available regions, but does move the requested sections into the correct regions and issue errors when the regions become too full. Command files may contain at most one use of the @code{MEMORY} command; however, you can define as many blocks of memory within it as you wish. The syntax is: @example MEMORY @{ @var{name} (@var{attr}) : ORIGIN = @var{origin}, LENGTH = @var{len} @dots{} @} @end example @table @code @item @var{name} @cindex naming memory regions is a name used internally by the linker to refer to the region. Any symbol name may be used. The region names are stored in a separate name space, and will not conflict with symbols, filenames or section names. Use distinct names to specify multiple regions. @item (@var{attr}) @cindex memory region attributes is an optional list of attributes, permitted for compatibility with the AT&T linker but not used by @code{ld} beyond checking that the attribute list is valid. Valid attribute lists must be made up of the characters ``@code{LIRWX}''. If you omit the attribute list, you may omit the parentheses around it as well. @item @var{origin} @kindex ORIGIN = @kindex o = @kindex org = is the start address of the region in physical memory. It is expressed as an expression, which must evaluate to a constant before memory allocation is performed. The keyword @code{ORIGIN} may be abbreviated to @code{org} or @code{o}. @item @var{len} @kindex LENGTH = @kindex len = @kindex l = is the size in bytes of the region (an expression). The keyword @code{LENGTH} may be abbreviated to @code{len} or @code{l}. @end table For example, to specify that memory has two regions available for allocation---one starting at @code{0} for 256 kilobytes, and the other starting at @code{0x40000000} for four megabytes: @example MEMORY @{ rom : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 256K ram : org = 0x40000000, l = 4M @} @end example Once you have defined a region of memory named @var{mem}, you can direct specific output sections there by using a command ending in @samp{>@var{mem}} within the @code{SECTIONS} command (@pxref{Section Options}). If the combined output sections directed to a region are too big for the region, the linker will issue an error message. @node SECTIONS, Entry Point, MEMORY, Commands @section SECTIONS Command @kindex SECTIONS The @code{SECTIONS} command controls exactly where input sections are placed into output sections, their order and to which output sections they are allocated. You may use at most one @code{SECTIONS} command in a commands file, but you can have as many statements within it as you wish. Statements within the @code{SECTIONS} command can do one of three things: @itemize @bullet @item define the entry point; @item assign a value to a symbol; @item describe the placement of a named output section, and what input sections make it up. @end itemize The first two possibilities---defining the entry point, and defining symbols---can also be done outside the @code{SECTIONS} command: @pxref{Entry Point}, @pxref{Assignment}. They are permitted here as well for your convenience in reading the script, so that symbols or the entry point can be defined at meaningful points in your output-file layout. When no @code{SECTIONS} command is specified, the default action of the linker is to place each input section into an identically named output section in the order that the sections are first encountered in the input files; if all input sections are present in the first file, for example, the order of sections in the output file will match the order in the first input file. @menu * Section Definition:: Section Definitions * Section Contents:: Section Contents * Section Options:: Optional Section Attributes @end menu @node Section Definition, Section Contents, SECTIONS, SECTIONS @subsection Section Definitions @cindex section definition The most frequently used statement in the @code{SECTIONS} command is the @dfn{section definition}, which you can use to specify the properties of an output section: its location, alignment, contents, fill pattern, and target memory region can all be specified. Most of these specifications are optional; the simplest form of a section definition is @example SECTIONS @{ @dots{} @var{secname} : @{ @var{contents} @} @dots{} @} @end example @cindex naming output sections @noindent @var{secname} is the name of the output section, and @var{contents} a specification of what goes there---for example a list of input files or sections of input files. As you might assume, the whitespace shown is optional; you do need the colon @samp{:} and the braces @samp{@{@}}, however. @var{secname} must meet the constraints of your output format. In formats which only support a limited number of sections, such as @code{a.out}, the name must be one of the names supported by the format (@code{a.out}, for example, allows only @code{.text}, @code{.data} or @code{.bss}). If the output format supports any number of sections, but with numbers and not names (as is the case for Oasys), the name should be supplied as a quoted numeric string. A section name may consist of any sequence characters, but any name which does not conform to the standard @code{ld} symbol name syntax must be quoted. @node Section Contents, Section Options, Section Definition, SECTIONS @subsection Section Contents @cindex contents of a section In a section definition, you can specify the contents of an output section by listing particular object files; by listing particular input-file sections; or a combination of the two. You can also place arbitrary data in the section, and define symbols relative to the beginning of the section. The @var{contents} of a section definition may include any of the following kinds of statement. You can include as many of these as you like in a single section definition, separated from one another by whitespace. @table @code @item @var{filename} @kindex @var{filename} @cindex input files, section defn @cindex files, including in output sections You may simply name a particular input file to be placed in the current output section; @emph{all} sections from that file are placed in the current section definition. To specify a list of particular files by name: @example .data : @{ afile.o bfile.o cfile.o @} @end example @noindent The example also illustrates that multiple statements can be included in the contents of a section definition, since each filename is a separate statement. If the file name has already been mentioned in another section definition, with an explicit section name list, then only those sections which have not yet been allocated are used. @item @var{filename}( @var{section} ) @itemx @var{filename}( @var{section}, @var{section}, @dots{} ) @itemx @var{filename}( @var{section} @var{section} @dots{} ) @kindex @var{filename}(@var{section}) @cindex files and sections, section defn You can name one or more sections from your input files, for insertion in the current output section. If you wish to specify a list of input-file sections inside the parentheses, you may separate the section names by either commas or whitespace. @item * (@var{section}) @itemx * (@var{section}, @var{section}, @dots{}) @itemx * (@var{section} @var{section} @dots{} @cindex input sections to output section @kindex *(@var{section}) Instead of explicitly naming particular input files in a link control script, you can refer to @emph{all} files from the @code{ld} command line: use @samp{*} instead of a particular filename before the parenthesized input-file section list. For example, to copy sections @code{1} through @code{4} from a Oasys file into the @code{.text} section of an @code{a.out} file, and sections @code{13} and @code{14} into the @code{.data} section: @example SECTIONS @{ .text :@{ *("1" "2" "3" "4") @} .data :@{ *("13" "14") @} @} @end example If you have already explicitly included some files by name, @samp{*} refers to all @emph{remaining} files---those whose places in the output file have not yet been defined. @item [ @var{section} ] @itemx [ @var{section}, @var{section}, @dots{} ] @itemx [ @var{section} @var{section} @dots{} ] @kindex [ @var{sections} ] This is an alternate notation to specify named sections from all unallocated input files; its effect is exactly the same as that of @samp{* (@var{section}@dots{})} @item @var{filename}@code{( COMMON )} @itemx ( COMMON ) @kindex ( COMMON ) @cindex uninitialized data @cindex commons in output Specify where in your output file to place uninitialized data with this notation. @code{*(COMMON)} by itself refers to all uninitialized data from all input files (so far as it is not yet allocated); @var{filename}@code{(COMMON)} refers to uninitialized data from a particular file. Both are special cases of the general mechanisms for specifying where to place input-file sections: @code{ld} permits you to refer to uninitialized data as if it were in an input-file section named @code{COMMON}, regardless of the input file's format. @end table For example, the following command script arranges the output file into three consecutive sections, named @code{.text}, @code{.data}, and @code{.bss}, taking the input for each from the correspondingly named sections of all the input files: @example SECTIONS @{ .text : @{ *(.text) @} .data : @{ *(.data) @} .bss : @{ *(.bss) *(COMMON) @} @} @end example The following example reads all of the sections from file @code{all.o} and places them at the start of output section @code{outputa} which starts at location @code{0x10000}. All of section @code{.input1} from file @code{foo.o} follows immediately, in the same output section. All of section @code{.input2} from @code{foo.o} goes into output section @code{outputb}, followed by section @code{.input1} from @code{foo1.o}. All of the remaining @code{.input1} and @code{.input2} sections from any files are written to output section @code{outputc}. @example SECTIONS @{ outputa 0x10000 : @{ all.o foo.o (.input1) @} outputb : @{ foo.o (.input2) foo1.o (.input1) @} outputc : @{ *(.input1) *(.input2) @} @} @end example There are still more kinds of statements permitted in the contents of output section definitions. The foregoing statements permitted you to arrange, in your output file, data originating from your input files. You can also place data directly in an output section from the link command script. Most of these additional statements involve expressions; @pxref{Expressions}. Although these statements are shown separately here for ease of presentation, no such segregation is needed within a section definition in the @code{SECTIONS} command; you can intermix them freely with any of the statements we've just described. @table @code @item CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS @kindex CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS @cindex input filename symbols @cindex filename symbols instructs the linker to create a symbol for each input file in the current section, set with the address of the first byte of data written from the input file. For instance, with @code{a.out} files it is conventional to have a symbol for each input file. You can accomplish this by defining the output @code{.text} section as follows: @example SECTIONS @{ .text 0x2020 : @{ CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS *(.text) _etext = ALIGN(0x2000); @} @dots{} @} @end example If @code{objsym} is a file containing this script, and @code{a.o}, @code{b.o}, @code{c.o}, and @code{d.o} are four input files with contents like the following--- @example /* a.c */ afunction() @{ @} int adata=1; int abss; @end example @noindent @samp{ld -M sample a.o b.o c.o d.o} would create a map like this, containing symbols matching the object file names: @example 00000000 A __DYNAMIC 00004020 B _abss 00004000 D _adata 00002020 T _afunction 00004024 B _bbss 00004008 D _bdata 00002038 T _bfunction 00004028 B _cbss 00004010 D _cdata 00002050 T _cfunction 0000402c B _dbss 00004018 D _ddata 00002068 T _dfunction 00004020 D _edata 00004030 B _end 00004000 T _etext 00002020 t a.o 00002038 t b.o 00002050 t c.o 00002068 t d.o @end example @item @var{symbol} = @var{expression} ; @kindex @var{symbol} = @var{expression} ; @itemx @var{symbol} @var{f}= @var{expression} ; @kindex @var{symbol} @var{f}= @var{expression} ; @var{symbol} is any symbol name (@pxref{Symbols}). ``@var{f}='' refers to any of the operators @code{&= += -= *= /=} which combine arithmetic and assignment. @cindex assignment, in section defn When you assign a value to a symbol within a particular section definition, the value is relative to the beginning of the section (@pxref{Assignment}). If you write @example SECTIONS @{ abs = 14 ; @dots{} .data : @{ @dots{} rel = 14 ; @dots{} @} abs2 = 14 + ADDR(.data); @dots{} @} @end example @c FIXME: Try above example! @noindent @code{abs} and @var{rel} do not have the same value; @code{rel} has the same value as @code{abs2}. @item BYTE(@var{expression}) @kindex BYTE(@var{expression}) @itemx SHORT(@var{expression}) @kindex SHORT(@var{expression}) @itemx LONG(@var{expression}) @kindex LONG(@var{expression}) @cindex direct output By including one of these three statements in a section definition, you can explicitly place one, two, or four bytes (respectively) at the current address of that section. Multiple-byte quantities are represented in whatever byte order is appropriate for the output file format (@pxref{BFD}). @item FILL(@var{expression}) @kindex FILL(@var{expression}) @cindex holes, filling @cindex unspecified memory Specifies the ``fill pattern'' for the current section. Any otherwise unspecified regions of memory within the section (for example, regions you skip over by assigning a new value to the location counter @samp{.}) are filled with the two least significant bytes from the @var{expression} argument. A @code{FILL} statement covers memory locations @emph{after} the point it occurs in the section definition; by including more than one @code{FILL} statement, you can have different fill patterns in different parts of an output section. @end table @node Section Options, , Section Contents, SECTIONS @subsection Optional Section Attributes @cindex section defn, full syntax Here is the full syntax of a section definition, including all the optional portions: @smallexample SECTIONS @{ @dots{} @var{secname} @var{start} BLOCK(@var{align}) (NOLOAD) : @{ @var{contents} @} =@var{fill} >@var{region} @dots{} @} @end smallexample @var{secname} and @var{contents} are required. @xref{Section Definition}, and @pxref{Section Contents} for details on @var{contents}. The remaining elements---@var{start}, @code{BLOCK(@var{align)}}, @code{(NOLOAD)} @code{=@var{fill}}, and @code{>@var{region}}---are all optional. @table @code @item @var{start} @cindex start address, section @cindex section start @cindex section address You can force the output section to be loaded at a specified address by specifying @var{start} immediately following the section name. @var{start} can be represented as any expression. The following example generates section @var{output} at location @code{0x40000000}: @example SECTIONS @{ @dots{} output 0x40000000: @{ @dots{} @} @dots{} @} @end example @item BLOCK(@var{align}) @kindex BLOCK(@var{align}) @cindex section alignment @cindex aligning sections You can include @code{BLOCK()} specification to advance the location of the location counter @code{.} prior to the beginning of the section, so that the section will begin at the specified alignment. @var{align} is an expression. @item (NOLOAD) @kindex NOLOAD @cindex prevent unnecessary loading Use @samp{(NOLOAD)} to prevent a section from being loaded into memory each time it is accessed. For example, in the script sample below, the @code{ROM} segment is addressed at memory location @samp{0} and does not need to be loaded into each object file: @example SECTIONS @{ ROM 0 (NOLOAD) : @{ @dots{} @} @dots{} @} @end example @item =@var{fill} @kindex =@var{fill} @cindex section fill pattern @cindex fill pattern, entire section You may use any expression to specify @var{fill}. Including @code{=@var{fill}} in a section definition specifies the initial fill value for that section. Any unallocated holes in the current output section when written to the output file will be filled with the two least significant bytes of the value, repeated as necessary. You can also change the fill value with a @code{FILL} statement in the @var{contents} of a section definition. @item >@var{region} @kindex >@var{region} @cindex section, assigning to memory region @cindex memory regions and sections Assign this section to a previously defined region of memory. @xref{MEMORY}. @end table @node Entry Point, Other Commands, SECTIONS, Commands @section The Entry Point @kindex ENTRY(@var{symbol}) @cindex start of execution @cindex first instruction The linker command language includes a command specifically for defining the first executable instruction in an output file (its @dfn{entry point}). Its argument is a symbol name: @example ENTRY(@var{symbol}) @end example Like symbol assignments, the @code{ENTRY} command may be placed either as an independent command in the command file, or among the section definitions within the @code{SECTIONS} command---whatever makes the most sense for your layout. @cindex entry point, defaults @code{ENTRY} is only one of several ways of choosing the entry point. You may indicate it in any of the following ways (shown in descending order of priority: methods higher in the list override methods lower down). @itemize @bullet @item the @code{-e} @var{entry} command-line option; @item the @code{ENTRY(@var{symbol}} command in a linker control script; @item the value of the symbol @code{start}, if present; @item the value of the symbol @code{_main}, if present; @item the address of the first byte of the @code{.text} section, if present; @item The address @code{0}. @end itemize For example, you can use these rules to generate an entry point with an assignment statement: if no symbol @code{start} is defined within your input files, you can simply define it, assigning it an appropriate value--- @example start = 0x2020; @end example @noindent The example shows an absolute address, but you can use any expression. For example, if your input object files use some other symbol-name convention for the entry point, you can just assign the value of whatever symbol contains the start address to @code{start}: @example start = other_symbol ; @end example @node Other Commands, , Entry Point, Commands @section Other Commands The command language includes a number of other commands that you can use for specialized purposes. They are similar in purpose to command-line options. @table @code @item FLOAT @kindex FLOAT @itemx NOFLOAT @kindex NOFLOAT These keywords were used in some older linkers to request a particular math subroutine library. @code{ld} doesn't use the keywords, assuming instead that any necessary subroutines are in libraries specified using the general mechanisms for linking to archives; but to permit the use of scripts that were written for the older linkers, the keywords @code{FLOAT} and @code{NOFLOAT} are accepted and ignored. @item FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION @kindex FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION @cindex common allocation This command has the same effect as the @code{-d} command-line option: to make @code{ld} assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable output file is specified (@code{-r}). @item INPUT ( @var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{} ) @kindex INPUT ( @var{files} ) @itemx INPUT ( @var{file} @var{file} @dots{} ) @cindex binary input files Use this command to include binary input files in the link, without including them in a particular section definition. Files specified this way are treated identically to object files listed on the command line. @ignore @item MAP ( @var{name} ) @kindex MAP ( @var{name} ) @c MAP(...) appears to look for an F in the arg, ignoring all other @c chars; if it finds one, it sets "map_option_f" to true. But nothing @c checks map_option_f. Apparently a stub for the future... @end ignore @item OUTPUT ( @var{filename} ) @kindex OUTPUT ( @var{filename} ) @cindex naming the output file Use this command to name the link output file @var{filename}. The effect of @code{OUTPUT(@var{filename})} is identical to the effect of @w{@code{-o @var{filename}}}, and whichever is encountered last will control the name actually used to name the output file. In particular, you can use this command to supply a default output-file name other than @code{a.out}. @item OUTPUT_ARCH ( @var{bfdname} ) @kindex OUTPUT_ARCH ( @var{bfdname} ) @cindex machine architecture, output Specify a particular output machine architecture, with one of the names used by the BFD back-end routines (@pxref{BFD}). This command is often unnecessary; the architecture is most often set implicitly by either the system BFD configuration or as a side effect of the @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} command. @refill @item OUTPUT_FORMAT ( @var{bfdname} ) @kindex OUTPUT_FORMAT ( @var{bfdname} ) @cindex format, output file Specify a particular output format, with one of the names used by the BFD back-end routines (@pxref{BFD}). This selection will only affect the output file; the related command @code{TARGET} affects primarily input files.@refill @item SEARCH_DIR ( @var{path} ) @kindex SEARCH_DIR ( @var{path} ) @cindex path for libraries @cindex search path, libraries Add @var{path} to the list of paths where @code{ld} looks for archive libraries. @code{SEARCH_DIR(@var{path})} has the same effect as @code{-L@var{path})} on the command line. @item STARTUP ( @var{filename} ) @kindex STARTUP ( @var{filename} ) @cindex first input file Ensure that @var{filename} is the first input file used in the link process. @item TARGET ( @var{format} ) @cindex input file format @kindex TARGET ( @var{format} ) Change the input-file object code format (like the command-line option @code{-b} or its synonym @code{-format}). The argument @var{format} is one of the strings used by BFD to name binary formats. In the current @code{ld} implementation, if @code{TARGET} is specified but @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} is not, the last @code{TARGET} argument is also used as the default format for the @code{ld} output file. @xref{BFD}.@refill @kindex GNUTARGET If you don't use the @code{TARGET} command, @code{ld} uses the value of the environment variable @code{GNUTARGET}, if available, to select the output file format. If that variable is also absent, @code{ld} uses the default format configured for your machine in the BFD libraries. @end table @node Machine Dependent, BFD, Commands, Top @chapter Machine Dependent Features @cindex machine dependencies @code{ld} has additional features on some platforms; the following sections describe them. Machines where @code{ld} has no additional functionality are not listed. @menu * H8/300:: @code{ld} and the H8/300 * i960:: @code{ld} and the Intel 960 family @end menu @node H8/300, i960, Machine Dependent, Machine Dependent @section @code{ld} and the H8/300 @cindex H8/300 support For the H8/300, @code{ld} can perform these global optimizations when you specify the @samp{-relax} command-line option. @table @emph @item relaxing address modes @cindex relaxing on H8/300 @code{ld} finds all @code{jsr} and @code{jmp} instructions whose targets are within eight bits, and turns them into eight-bit program-counter relative @code{bsr} and @code{bra} instructions, respectively. @item synthesizing instructions @cindex synthesizing on H8/300 @c FIXME: specifically mov.b, or any mov instructions really? @code{ld} finds all @code{mov.b} instructions which use the sixteen-bit absolute address form, but refer to the top page of memory, and changes them to use the eight-bit address form. (That is: the linker turns @samp{mov.b @code{@@}@var{aa}:16} into @samp{mov.b @code{@@}@var{aa}:8} whenever the address @var{aa} is in the top page of memory). @end table @node i960, , H8/300, Machine Dependent @section @code{ld} and the Intel 960 family @cindex i960 support @ignore @menu * i960-arch:: Linking for a Specific i960 Architecture * i960-emulation:: Emulating Other i960 Linkers * i960-commands:: Command Language Extensions for i960 @end menu @node i960-arch, i960-emulation, i960, i960 @subsection Linking for a Specific i960 Architecture @end ignore You can use the @samp{-A@var{architecture}} command line option to specify one of the two-letter names identifying members of the 960 family; the option specifies the desired output target, and warns of any incompatible instructions in the input files. It also modifies the linker's search strategy for archive libraries, to support the use of libraries specific to each particular architecture, by including in the search loop names suffixed with the string identifying the architecture. For example, if your @code{ld} command line included @w{@samp{-ACA}} as well as @w{@samp{-ltry}}, the linker would look (in its built-in search paths, and in any paths you specify with @code{-L}) for a library with the names @example try libtry.a tryca libtryca.a @end example @noindent The first two possibilities would be considered in any event; the last two are due to the use of @w{@samp{-ACA}}. You can meaningfully use @code{-A} more than once on a command line, since the 960 architecture family allows combination of target architectures; each use will add another pair of name variants to search for when @w{@code{-l}} specifies a library. @ignore @node i960-emulation, i960-commands, i960-arch, i960 @subsection Emulating Other i960 Linkers You can set the @code{LDEMULATION} environment variable (@pxref{Environment,,Environment Variables}) to make @code{ld} more compatible with two older Intel 960 linkers: @table @code @item LDEMULATION=gld960 @kindex gld960 @kindex G960LIB @kindex G960BASE @cindex i960 Emulate the Intel port of the older @code{gld} for the i960 architectures. The default library search paths are taken from two other environment variables, @code{G960LIB} and @code{G960BASE}. The default architecture is @code{i960}. The default output format is set to @code{b.out.big}, and in fact the default output file name (if @code{-o} is not specified) is @code{b.out}, to reflect this variant format, for this emulation. @kindex GNU960 This emulation can behave slightly differently depending on the setting of the @code{ld} compile-time switch @code{GNU960}. If @code{ld} is compiled with @code{GNU960} defined, then an additional environment variable---@code{GNUTARGET}---is available; its value, if available, specifies some other default output format than @code{b.out.big}. @item LDEMULATION=lnk960 @kindex lnk960 @cindex i960 @cindex Architectures, i960 family Emulate the Intel linker @code{lnk960}. The default output format is @code{coff-Intel-big}. With this emulation, @code{ld} supports the additional script commands @code{HLL} and @code{SYSLIB} for specification of library archives. This is the only emulation with extensive support for the @code{-A} (architecture) command-line option. By default, the architecture @code{CORE} is assumed, but you can choose additional features from the i960 architecture family by using one of the following with @code{-A} (or by using the @code{OUTPUT_ARCH} command from a script): @example CORE KB SB MC XA CA KA SA @end example The default libraries are chosen with some attention to the architecture selected; the core library @file{cg} is always included, but the library @code{fpg} is also used if you've specified any of the architectures @code{KA}, @code{SA}, or @code{CA}. @kindex GNU960 Like @code{gld960}, this emulation uses additional environment variables to set the default library search paths. Also like @code{gld960}, the behavior of this emulation is slightly different depending on whether @code{ld} itself was compiled with @code{GNU960} defined. @kindex G960BASE @kindex G960LIB @kindex I960BASE If your @code{ld} was compiled with @code{GNU960} defined, the default paths are taken from all three of @code{G960LIB}, @code{G960BASE}, and @code{I960BASE}. For the first two, paths you supply are automatically suffixed with @samp{/lib/libcoff}; for the last, your path is automatically suffixed with @samp{/lib}. If your @code{ld} was @emph{not} compiled with @code{GNU960} defined, the default paths are taken from @code{I960BASE}, and @code{G960BASE} is only consulted if @code{I960BASE} is undefined. In this case @code{G960LIB} is not used at all. @end table @node i960-commands, , i960-emulation, i960 @subsection Command Language Extensions for i960 @code{ld} understands the following additional commands when @code{LDEMULATION} is set to @samp{lnk960}: @table @code @item HLL ( @var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{} ) @itemx HLL ( @var{file} @var{file} @dots{} ) @itemx HLL ( ) @kindex HLL ( @var{files} ) Include ``high-level libraries'' or archives as input files in the link. Using @code{HLL(@var{file}} in a linker script is equivalent to including @code{-l}@var{file} on the command line. @cindex @code{lnk960} command @code{HLL} The @code{HLL} command is only supported when @code{ld} emulates @code{lnk960}, as specified by the @code{LDEMULATION} environment variable. @item SYSLIB ( @var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{} ) @itemx SYSLIB ( @var{file} @var{file} @dots{} ) @kindex SYSLIB ( @var{file}, @var{file}, @dots{} ) Use the named @var{file}s as binary input files, searching for them in the same list of paths as archives. @cindex @code{lnk960} command @code{SYSLIB} The @code{SYSLIB} command is only supported when @code{ld} emulates @code{lnk960}, as specified by the @code{LDEMULATION} environment variable. @end table @node m68k, m88k, i960, Machine Dependent @section @code{ld} and the Motorola 680x0 family @cindex m68k support You can set the environment variable @code{LDEMULATION} to @samp{gld68k} for closer compatibility with the older GNU linker on Motorola 680x0 platforms. This emulation is a variant of the @code{gld} emulation; it only differs in specifically setting the default BFD machine as @code{m68k}. @xref{Environment,,Environment Variables}. @node m88k, , m68k, Machine Dependent @section @code{ld} and the Motorola 880x0 family @cindex m88k support @kindex gldm88kbcs You can configure the linker to conform to the Motorola 88K BCS by setting the environment variable @code{LDEMULATION} to @samp{gldm88kbcs}. This sets the output format to @code{m88kbcs} and the architecture to @code{m88k}. Default library search paths are @example /lib /usr/lib /usr/local/lib @end example For other settings of @code{LDEMULATION}, consult @ref{Environment,,Environment Variables}. @end ignore @node BFD, MRI, Machine Dependent, Top @chapter BFD @cindex back end @cindex object file management The linker accesses object and archive files using the BFD libraries. These libraries allow the linker to use the same routines to operate on object files whatever the object file format. A different object file format can be supported simply by creating a new BFD back end and adding it to the library. You can use @code{objdump -i} (@pxref{objdump,,objdump,binutils.info,The GNU Binary Utilities}) to list all the formats available for each architecture under BFD. This was the list of formats, and of architectures supported for each format, as of the time this manual was prepared: @cindex formats available @cindex architectures available @example BFD header file version 0.18 a.out-i386 (header big endian, data big endian) m68k:68020 a29k sparc i386 a.out-sunos-big (header big endian, data big endian) m68k:68020 a29k sparc i386 b.out.big (header big endian, data little endian) i960:core b.out.little (header little endian, data little endian) i960:core coff-a29k-big (header big endian, data big endian) a29k coff-h8300 (header big endian, data big endian) H8/300 coff-i386 (header little endian, data little endian) i386 coff-Intel-big (header big endian, data little endian) i960:core coff-Intel-little (header little endian, data little endian) i960:core coff-m68k (header big endian, data big endian) m68k:68020 coff-m88kbcs (header big endian, data big endian) m88k:88100 ecoff-bigmips (header big endian, data big endian) mips ecoff-littlemips (header little endian, data little endian) mips elf-big (header big endian, data big endian) m68k:68020 vax i960:core a29k sparc mips i386 m88k:88100 H8/300 rs6000:6000 elf-little (header little endian, data little endian) m68k:68020 vax i960:core a29k sparc mips i386 m88k:88100 H8/300 rs6000:6000 ieee (header big endian, data big endian) m68k:68020 vax i960:core a29k sparc mips i386 m88k:88100 H8/300 rs6000:6000 srec (header big endian, data big endian) m68k:68020 vax i960:core a29k sparc mips i386 m88k:88100 H8/300 rs6000:6000 @end example @cindex BFD requirements @cindex requirements for BFD As with most implementations, BFD is a compromise between several conflicting requirements. The major factor influencing BFD design was efficiency: any time used converting between formats is time which would not have been spent had BFD not been involved. This is partly offset by abstraction payback; since BFD simplifies applications and back ends, more time and care may be spent optimizing algorithms for a greater speed. One minor artifact of the BFD solution which you should bear in mind is the potential for information loss. There are two places where useful information can be lost using the BFD mechanism; during conversion and during output. @xref{BFD information loss}. @menu * BFD outline:: How it works: an outline of BFD * BFD information loss:: Information Loss * Mechanism:: Mechanism @end menu @node BFD outline, BFD information loss, BFD, BFD @section How it works: an outline of BFD @cindex opening object files When an object file is opened, BFD subroutines automatically determine the format of the input object file, and build a descriptor in memory with pointers to routines that will be used to access elements of the object file's data structures. As different information from the the object files is required BFD reads from different sections of the file and processes them. For example a very common operation for the linker is processing symbol tables. Each BFD back end provides a routine for converting between the object file's representation of symbols and an internal canonical format. When the linker asks for the symbol table of an object file, it calls through the memory pointer to the relevant BFD back end routine which reads and converts the table into a canonical form. The linker then operates upon the common form. When the link is finished and the linker writes the symbol table of the output file, another BFD back end routine is called which takes the newly created symbol table and converts it into the chosen output format. @node BFD information loss, Mechanism, BFD outline, BFD @section Information Loss @emph{Information can be lost during output.} The output formats supported by BFD do not provide identical facilities, and information which may be described in one form has nowhere to go in another format. One example of this is alignment information in @code{b.out}. There is nowhere in an @code{a.out} format file to store alignment information on the contained data, so when a file is linked from @code{b.out} and an @code{a.out} image is produced, alignment information will not propagate to the output file. (The linker will still use the alignment information internally, so the link is performed correctly). Another example is COFF section names. COFF files may contain an unlimited number of sections, each one with a textual section name. If the target of the link is a format which does not have many sections (eg @code{a.out}) or has sections without names (eg the Oasys format) the link cannot be done simply. You can circumvent this problem by describing the desired input-to-output section mapping with the command language. @emph{Information can be lost during canonicalization.} The BFD internal canonical form of the external formats is not exhaustive; there are structures in input formats for which there is no direct representation internally. This means that the BFD back ends cannot maintain all possible data richness through the transformation between external to internal and back to external formats. This limitation is only a problem when using the linker to read one format and write another. Each BFD back end is responsible for maintaining as much data as possible, and the internal BFD canonical form has structures which are opaque to the BFD core, and exported only to the back ends. When a file is read in one format, the canonical form is generated for BFD and the linker. At the same time, the back end saves away any information which may otherwise be lost. If the data is then written back in the same format, the back end routine will be able to use the canonical form provided by the BFD core as well as the information it prepared earlier. Since there is a great deal of commonality between back ends, this mechanism is very useful. There is no information lost for this reason when linking big endian COFF to little endian COFF, or from @code{a.out} to @code{b.out}. When a mixture of formats is linked, the information is only lost from the files whose format differs from the destination. @node Mechanism, , BFD information loss, BFD @section Mechanism The greatest potential for loss of information is when there is least overlap between the information provided by the source format, that stored by the canonical format, and the information needed by the destination format. A brief description of the canonical form may help you appreciate what kinds of data you can count on preserving across conversions. @cindex BFD canonical format @cindex internal object-file format @table @emph @item files Information on target machine architecture, particular implementation and format type are stored on a per-file basis. Other information includes a demand pageable bit and a write protected bit. Note that information like Unix magic numbers is not stored here---only the magic numbers' meaning, so a @code{ZMAGIC} file would have both the demand pageable bit and the write protected text bit set. The byte order of the target is stored on a per-file basis, so that big- and little-endian object files may be linked with one another. @item sections Each section in the input file contains the name of the section, the original address in the object file, various flags, size and alignment information and pointers into other BFD data structures. @item symbols Each symbol contains a pointer to the object file which originally defined it, its name, its value, and various flag bits. When a BFD back end reads in a symbol table, the back end relocates all symbols to make them relative to the base of the section where they were defined. This ensures that each symbol points to its containing section. Each symbol also has a varying amount of hidden data to contain private data for the BFD back end. Since the symbol points to the original file, the private data format for that symbol is accessible. @code{ld} can operate on a collection of symbols of wildly different formats without problems. Normal global and simple local symbols are maintained on output, so an output file (no matter its format) will retain symbols pointing to functions and to global, static, and common variables. Some symbol information is not worth retaining; in @code{a.out} type information is stored in the symbol table as long symbol names. This information would be useless to most COFF debuggers and may be thrown away with appropriate command line switches. (The GNU debugger @code{gdb} does support @code{a.out} style debugging information in COFF). There is one word of type information within the symbol, so if the format supports symbol type information within symbols (for example COFF, IEEE, Oasys) and the type is simple enough to fit within one word (nearly everything but aggregates) the information will be preserved. @item relocation level Each canonical BFD relocation record contains a pointer to the symbol to relocate to, the offset of the data to relocate, the section the data is in and a pointer to a relocation type descriptor. Relocation is performed effectively by message passing through the relocation type descriptor and symbol pointer. It allows relocations to be performed on output data using a relocation method only available in one of the input formats. For instance, Oasys provides a byte relocation format. A relocation record requesting this relocation type would point indirectly to a routine to perform this, so the relocation may be performed on a byte being written to a COFF file, even though 68k COFF has no such relocation type. @c FIXME why specific reference to 68K above? @item line numbers Object formats can contain, for debugging purposes, some form of mapping between symbols, source line numbers, and addresses in the output file. These addresses have to be relocated along with the symbol information. Each symbol with an associated list of line number records points to the first record of the list. The head of a line number list consists of a pointer to the symbol, which allows divination of the address of the function whose line number is being described. The rest of the list is made up of pairs: offsets into the section and line numbers. Any format which can simply derive this information can pass it successfully between formats (COFF, IEEE and Oasys). @end table @node MRI, Index, BFD, Top @appendix MRI Compatible Script Files @cindex MRI compatibility To aid users making the transition to @sc{gnu} @code{ld} from the MRI linker, @code{ld} can use MRI compatible linker scripts as an alternative to the more general-purpose linker scripting language described in @ref{Commands,,Command Language}. MRI compatible linker scripts have a much simpler command set than the scripting language otherwise used with @code{ld}. @sc{gnu} @code{ld} supports the most commonly used MRI linker commands; these commands are described here. You can specify a file containing an MRI-compatible script using the @samp{-c} command-line option. Each command in an MRI-compatible script occupies its own line; each command line starts with the keyword that identifies the command (though blank lines are also allowed for punctuation). If a line of an MRI-compatible script begins with an unrecognized keyword, @code{ld} issues a warning message, but continues processing the script. Lines beginning with @samp{*} are comments. You can write these commands using all upper-case letters, or all lower case; for example, @samp{chip} is the same as @samp{CHIP}. The following list shows only the upper-case form of each command. @table @code @item ABSOLUTE @var{secname} @item ABSOLUTE @var{secname}, @var{secname}, @dots{} @var{secname} @cindex @code{ABSOLUTE} (MRI) Normally, @code{ld} includes in the output file all sections from all the input files. However, in an MRI-compatible script, you can use the @code{ABSOLUTE} command to restrict the sections that will be present in your output program. If the @code{ABSOLUTE} command is used at all in a script, then only the sections named explicitly in @code{ABSOLUTE} commands will appear in the linker output. You can still use other input sections (whatever you select on the command line, or using @code{LOAD}) to resolve addresses in the output file. @item ALIAS @var{out-secname}, @var{in-secname} @cindex @code{ALIAS} (MRI) Use this command to place the data from input section @var{in-secname} in a section called @var{out-secname} in the linker output file. @var{in-secname} may be an integer. @item BASE @var{expression} @cindex @code{BASE} (MRI) Use the value of @var{expression} as the lowest address (other than absolute addresses) in the output file. @item CHIP @var{expression} @itemx CHIP @var{expression}, @var{expression} @cindex @code{CHIP} (MRI) This command does nothing whatever; it's only accepted for compatibility. @item END @cindex @code{END} (MRI) This command does nothing whatever; it's only accepted for compatibility. @item FORMAT @var{output-format} @cindex @code{FORMAT} (MRI) Similar to the @code{OUTPUT_FORMAT} command in the more general linker language, but restricted to one of these output formats: @enumerate @item S-records, if @var{output-format} is @samp{S} @item IEEE, if @var{output-format} is @samp{IEEE} @item COFF (the @samp{coff-m68k} variant in BFD), if @var{output-format} is @samp{COFF} @end enumerate @item LIST @var{@dots{}} @cindex @code{LIST} (MRI) Print (to the standard output file) a link map, as produced by the @code{ld} command-line option @samp{-M}. (The keyword @code{LIST} may be followed by anything whatsoever on the same line, with no change in its effect.) @item LOAD @var{filename} @item LOAD @var{filename}, @var{filename}, @dots{} @var{filename} @cindex @code{LOAD} (MRI) Include one or more object file @var{filename} in the link; this has the same effect as specifying @var{filename} directly on the @code{ld} command line. @item NAME @var{output-name} @cindex @code{NAME} (MRI) @var{output-name} is the name for the program produced by @code{ld}; the MRI-compatible command @code{NAME} is equivalent to the command-line option @samp{-o} or the general script language command @code{OUTPUT}. @item ORDER @var{secname}, @var{secname}, @dots{} @var{secname} @itemx ORDER @var{secname} @var{secname} @var{secname} @cindex @code{ORDER} (MRI) Normally, @code{ld} orders the sections in its output file in whatever order they first appear in the input files. In an MRI-compatible script, you can override this with the @code{ORDER} command. The sections you list with @code{ORDER} will appear first in your output file, in the order specified. @item PUBLIC @var{name}=@var{expression} @itemx PUBLIC @var{name},@var{expression} @itemx PUBLIC @var{name} @var{expression} @cindex @code{PUBLIC} (MRI) This command supplies a value (@var{expression}) for an external symbol @var{name} used in the linker input files. @item SECT @var{secname}, @var{expression} @itemx SECT @var{secname}=@var{expression} @itemx SECT @var{secname} @var{expression} @cindex @code{SECT} (MRI) You can use any of these three forms of the @code{SECT} command to specify the start address (@var{expression}) for section @var{secname}. If you have more than one @code{SECT} statement for the same @var{secname}, only the @emph{first} sets the start address. @end table @node Index, , MRI, Top @unnumbered Index @printindex cp @tex % I think something like @colophon should be in texinfo. In the % meantime: \long\def\colophon{\hbox to0pt{}\vfill \centerline{The body of this manual is set in} \centerline{\fontname\tenrm,} \centerline{with headings in {\bf\fontname\tenbf}} \centerline{and examples in {\tt\fontname\tentt}.} \centerline{{\it\fontname\tenit\/} and} \centerline{{\sl\fontname\tensl\/}} \centerline{are used for emphasis.}\vfill} \page\colophon % Blame: pesch@cygnus.com, 28mar91. @end tex @contents @bye