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diff --git a/etc/standards.texi b/etc/standards.texi new file mode 100644 index 0000000..910bf8b --- /dev/null +++ b/etc/standards.texi @@ -0,0 +1,3093 @@ +\input texinfo @c -*-texinfo-*- +@c %**start of header +@setfilename standards.info +@settitle GNU Coding Standards +@c This date is automagically updated when you save this file: +@set lastupdate March 13, 1998 +@c %**end of header + +@ifinfo +@format +START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY +* Standards: (standards). GNU coding standards. +END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY +@end format +@end ifinfo + +@c @setchapternewpage odd +@setchapternewpage off + +@c This is used by a cross ref in make-stds.texi +@set CODESTD 1 +@iftex +@set CHAPTER chapter +@end iftex +@ifinfo +@set CHAPTER node +@end ifinfo + +@ifinfo +GNU Coding Standards +Copyright (C) 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. + +Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of +this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice +are preserved on all copies. + +@ignore +Permission is granted to process this file through TeX and print the +results, provided the printed document carries copying permission +notice identical to this one except for the removal of this paragraph +(this paragraph not being relevant to the printed manual). +@end ignore + +Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this +manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire +resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission +notice identical to this one. + +Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual +into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, +except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation approved +by the Free Software Foundation. +@end ifinfo + +@titlepage +@title GNU Coding Standards +@author Richard Stallman +@author last updated @value{lastupdate} +@page + +@vskip 0pt plus 1filll +Copyright @copyright{} 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. + +Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of +this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice +are preserved on all copies. + +Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this +manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire +resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission +notice identical to this one. + +Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual +into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, +except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation approved +by the Free Software Foundation. +@end titlepage + +@ifinfo +@node Top, Preface, (dir), (dir) +@top Version + +Last updated @value{lastupdate}. +@end ifinfo + +@menu +* Preface:: About the GNU Coding Standards +* Intellectual Property:: Keeping Free Software Free +* Design Advice:: General Program Design +* Program Behavior:: Program Behavior for All Programs +* Writing C:: Making The Best Use of C +* Documentation:: Documenting Programs +* Managing Releases:: The Release Process +@end menu + +@node Preface +@chapter About the GNU Coding Standards + +The GNU Coding Standards were written by Richard Stallman and other GNU +Project volunteers. Their purpose is to make the GNU system clean, +consistent, and easy to install. This document can also be read as a +guide to writing portable, robust and reliable programs. It focuses on +programs written in C, but many of the rules and principles are useful +even if you write in another programming language. The rules often +state reasons for writing in a certain way. + +Corrections or suggestions for this document should be sent to +@email{gnu@@gnu.org}. If you make a suggestion, please include a +suggested new wording for it; our time is limited. We prefer a context +diff to the @file{standards.texi} or @file{make-stds.texi} files, but if +you don't have those files, please mail your suggestion anyway. + +This release of the GNU Coding Standards was last updated +@value{lastupdate}. + +@node Intellectual Property +@chapter Keeping Free Software Free + +This @value{CHAPTER} discusses how you can make sure that GNU software +remains unencumbered. + +@menu +* Reading Non-Free Code:: Referring to Proprietary Programs +* Contributions:: Accepting Contributions +@end menu + +@node Reading Non-Free Code +@section Referring to Proprietary Programs + +Don't in any circumstances refer to Unix source code for or during +your work on GNU! (Or to any other proprietary programs.) + +If you have a vague recollection of the internals of a Unix program, +this does not absolutely mean you can't write an imitation of it, but +do try to organize the imitation internally along different lines, +because this is likely to make the details of the Unix version +irrelevant and dissimilar to your results. + +For example, Unix utilities were generally optimized to minimize +memory use; if you go for speed instead, your program will be very +different. You could keep the entire input file in core and scan it +there instead of using stdio. Use a smarter algorithm discovered more +recently than the Unix program. Eliminate use of temporary files. Do +it in one pass instead of two (we did this in the assembler). + +Or, on the contrary, emphasize simplicity instead of speed. For some +applications, the speed of today's computers makes simpler algorithms +adequate. + +Or go for generality. For example, Unix programs often have static +tables or fixed-size strings, which make for arbitrary limits; use +dynamic allocation instead. Make sure your program handles NULs and +other funny characters in the input files. Add a programming language +for extensibility and write part of the program in that language. + +Or turn some parts of the program into independently usable libraries. +Or use a simple garbage collector instead of tracking precisely when +to free memory, or use a new GNU facility such as obstacks. + + +@node Contributions +@section Accepting Contributions + +If someone else sends you a piece of code to add to the program you are +working on, we need legal papers to use it---the same sort of legal +papers we will need to get from you. @emph{Each} significant +contributor to a program must sign some sort of legal papers in order +for us to have clear title to the program. The main author alone is not +enough. + +So, before adding in any contributions from other people, please tell +us, so we can arrange to get the papers. Then wait until we tell you +that we have received the signed papers, before you actually use the +contribution. + +This applies both before you release the program and afterward. If +you receive diffs to fix a bug, and they make significant changes, we +need legal papers for that change. + +This also applies to comments and documentation files. For copyright +law, comments and code are just text. Copyright applies to all kinds of +text, so we need legal papers for all kinds. + +You don't need papers for changes of a few lines here or there, since +they are not significant for copyright purposes. Also, you don't need +papers if all you get from the suggestion is some ideas, not actual code +which you use. For example, if you write a different solution to the +problem, you don't need to get papers. + +We know this is frustrating; it's frustrating for us as well. But if +you don't wait, you are going out on a limb---for example, what if the +contributor's employer won't sign a disclaimer? You might have to take +that code out again! + +The very worst thing is if you forget to tell us about the other +contributor. We could be very embarrassed in court some day as a +result. + +We have more detailed advice for maintainers of programs; if you have +reached the stage of actually maintaining a program for GNU (whether +released or not), please ask us for a copy. + +@node Design Advice +@chapter General Program Design + +This @value{CHAPTER} discusses some of the issues you should take into +account when designing your program. + +@menu +* Compatibility:: Compatibility with other implementations +* Using Extensions:: Using non-standard features +* ANSI C:: Using ANSI C features +* Source Language:: Using languages other than C +@end menu + +@node Compatibility +@section Compatibility with Other Implementations + +With occasional exceptions, utility programs and libraries for GNU +should be upward compatible with those in Berkeley Unix, and upward +compatible with @sc{ansi} C if @sc{ansi} C specifies their behavior, and +upward compatible with @sc{POSIX} if @sc{POSIX} specifies their +behavior. + +When these standards conflict, it is useful to offer compatibility +modes for each of them. + +@sc{ansi} C and @sc{POSIX} prohibit many kinds of extensions. Feel free +to make the extensions anyway, and include a @samp{--ansi}, +@samp{--posix}, or @samp{--compatible} option to turn them off. +However, if the extension has a significant chance of breaking any real +programs or scripts, then it is not really upward compatible. Try to +redesign its interface. + +Many GNU programs suppress extensions that conflict with POSIX if the +environment variable @code{POSIXLY_CORRECT} is defined (even if it is +defined with a null value). Please make your program recognize this +variable if appropriate. + +When a feature is used only by users (not by programs or command +files), and it is done poorly in Unix, feel free to replace it +completely with something totally different and better. (For example, +@code{vi} is replaced with Emacs.) But it is nice to offer a compatible +feature as well. (There is a free @code{vi} clone, so we offer it.) + +Additional useful features not in Berkeley Unix are welcome. + +@node Using Extensions +@section Using Non-standard Features + +Many GNU facilities that already exist support a number of convenient +extensions over the comparable Unix facilities. Whether to use these +extensions in implementing your program is a difficult question. + +On the one hand, using the extensions can make a cleaner program. +On the other hand, people will not be able to build the program +unless the other GNU tools are available. This might cause the +program to work on fewer kinds of machines. + +With some extensions, it might be easy to provide both alternatives. +For example, you can define functions with a ``keyword'' @code{INLINE} +and define that as a macro to expand into either @code{inline} or +nothing, depending on the compiler. + +In general, perhaps it is best not to use the extensions if you can +straightforwardly do without them, but to use the extensions if they +are a big improvement. + +An exception to this rule are the large, established programs (such as +Emacs) which run on a great variety of systems. Such programs would +be broken by use of GNU extensions. + +Another exception is for programs that are used as part of +compilation: anything that must be compiled with other compilers in +order to bootstrap the GNU compilation facilities. If these require +the GNU compiler, then no one can compile them without having them +installed already. That would be no good. + +@node ANSI C +@section @sc{ansi} C and pre-@sc{ansi} C + +Do not ever use the ``trigraph'' feature of @sc{ansi} C. + +@sc{ansi} C is widespread enough now that it is ok to write new programs +that use @sc{ansi} C features (and therefore will not work in +non-@sc{ansi} compilers). And if a program is already written in +@sc{ansi} C, there's no need to convert it to support non-@sc{ansi} +compilers. + +However, it is easy to support non-@sc{ansi} compilers in most programs, +so you might still consider doing so when you write a program. Instead +of writing function definitions in @sc{ansi} prototype form, + +@example +int +foo (int x, int y) +@dots{} +@end example + +@noindent +write the definition in pre-@sc{ansi} style like this, + +@example +int +foo (x, y) + int x, y; +@dots{} +@end example + +@noindent +and use a separate declaration to specify the argument prototype: + +@example +int foo (int, int); +@end example + +You need such a declaration anyway, in a header file, to get the benefit +of @sc{ansi} C prototypes in all the files where the function is called. +And once you have it, you lose nothing by writing the function +definition in the pre-@sc{ansi} style. + +If you don't know non-@sc{ansi} C, there's no need to learn it; just +write in @sc{ansi} C. + +@node Source Language +@section Using Languages Other Than C + +Using a language other than C is like using a non-standard feature: it +will cause trouble for users. Even if GCC supports the other language, +users may find it inconvenient to have to install the compiler for that +other language in order to build your program. For example, if you +write your program in C++, people will have to install the C++ compiler +in order to compile your program. Thus, it is better if you write in C. + +But there are three situations when there is no disadvantage in using +some other language: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +It is okay to use another language if your program contains an +interpreter for that language. + +For example, if your program links with GUILE, it is ok to write part of +the program in Scheme or another language supported by GUILE. + +@item +It is okay to use another language in a tool specifically intended for +use with that language. + +This is okay because the only people who want to build the tool will be +those who have installed the other language anyway. + +@item +If an application is of interest to a narrow community, then perhaps +it's not important if the application is inconvenient to install. +@end itemize + +C has one other advantage over C++ and other compiled languages: more +people know C, so more people will find it easy to read and modify the +program if it is written in C. + +@node Program Behavior +@chapter Program Behavior for All Programs + +This @value{CHAPTER} describes how to write robust software. It also +describes general standards for error messages, the command line interface, +and how libraries should behave. + +@menu +* Semantics:: Writing robust programs +* Libraries:: Library behavior +* Errors:: Formatting error messages +* User Interfaces:: Standards for command line interfaces +* Option Table:: Table of long options. +* Memory Usage:: When and how to care about memory needs +@end menu + +@node Semantics +@section Writing Robust Programs + +Avoid arbitrary limits on the length or number of @emph{any} data +structure, including file names, lines, files, and symbols, by allocating +all data structures dynamically. In most Unix utilities, ``long lines +are silently truncated''. This is not acceptable in a GNU utility. + +Utilities reading files should not drop NUL characters, or any other +nonprinting characters @emph{including those with codes above 0177}. The +only sensible exceptions would be utilities specifically intended for +interface to certain types of printers that can't handle those characters. + +Check every system call for an error return, unless you know you wish to +ignore errors. Include the system error text (from @code{perror} or +equivalent) in @emph{every} error message resulting from a failing +system call, as well as the name of the file if any and the name of the +utility. Just ``cannot open foo.c'' or ``stat failed'' is not +sufficient. + +Check every call to @code{malloc} or @code{realloc} to see if it +returned zero. Check @code{realloc} even if you are making the block +smaller; in a system that rounds block sizes to a power of 2, +@code{realloc} may get a different block if you ask for less space. + +In Unix, @code{realloc} can destroy the storage block if it returns +zero. GNU @code{realloc} does not have this bug: if it fails, the +original block is unchanged. Feel free to assume the bug is fixed. If +you wish to run your program on Unix, and wish to avoid lossage in this +case, you can use the GNU @code{malloc}. + +You must expect @code{free} to alter the contents of the block that was +freed. Anything you want to fetch from the block, you must fetch before +calling @code{free}. + +If @code{malloc} fails in a noninteractive program, make that a fatal +error. In an interactive program (one that reads commands from the +user), it is better to abort the command and return to the command +reader loop. This allows the user to kill other processes to free up +virtual memory, and then try the command again. + +Use @code{getopt_long} to decode arguments, unless the argument syntax +makes this unreasonable. + +When static storage is to be written in during program execution, use +explicit C code to initialize it. Reserve C initialized declarations +for data that will not be changed. +@c ADR: why? + +Try to avoid low-level interfaces to obscure Unix data structures (such +as file directories, utmp, or the layout of kernel memory), since these +are less likely to work compatibly. If you need to find all the files +in a directory, use @code{readdir} or some other high-level interface. +These will be supported compatibly by GNU. + +By default, the GNU system will provide the signal handling functions of +@sc{BSD} and of @sc{POSIX}. So GNU software should be written to use +these. + +In error checks that detect ``impossible'' conditions, just abort. +There is usually no point in printing any message. These checks +indicate the existence of bugs. Whoever wants to fix the bugs will have +to read the source code and run a debugger. So explain the problem with +comments in the source. The relevant data will be in variables, which +are easy to examine with the debugger, so there is no point moving them +elsewhere. + +Do not use a count of errors as the exit status for a program. +@emph{That does not work}, because exit status values are limited to 8 +bits (0 through 255). A single run of the program might have 256 +errors; if you try to return 256 as the exit status, the parent process +will see 0 as the status, and it will appear that the program succeeded. + +If you make temporary files, check the @code{TMPDIR} environment +variable; if that variable is defined, use the specified directory +instead of @file{/tmp}. + +@node Libraries +@section Library Behavior + +Try to make library functions reentrant. If they need to do dynamic +storage allocation, at least try to avoid any nonreentrancy aside from +that of @code{malloc} itself. + +Here are certain name conventions for libraries, to avoid name +conflicts. + +Choose a name prefix for the library, more than two characters long. +All external function and variable names should start with this +prefix. In addition, there should only be one of these in any given +library member. This usually means putting each one in a separate +source file. + +An exception can be made when two external symbols are always used +together, so that no reasonable program could use one without the +other; then they can both go in the same file. + +External symbols that are not documented entry points for the user +should have names beginning with @samp{_}. They should also contain +the chosen name prefix for the library, to prevent collisions with +other libraries. These can go in the same files with user entry +points if you like. + +Static functions and variables can be used as you like and need not +fit any naming convention. + +@node Errors +@section Formatting Error Messages + +Error messages from compilers should look like this: + +@example +@var{source-file-name}:@var{lineno}: @var{message} +@end example + +Error messages from other noninteractive programs should look like this: + +@example +@var{program}:@var{source-file-name}:@var{lineno}: @var{message} +@end example + +@noindent +when there is an appropriate source file, or like this: + +@example +@var{program}: @var{message} +@end example + +@noindent +when there is no relevant source file. + +In an interactive program (one that is reading commands from a +terminal), it is better not to include the program name in an error +message. The place to indicate which program is running is in the +prompt or with the screen layout. (When the same program runs with +input from a source other than a terminal, it is not interactive and +would do best to print error messages using the noninteractive style.) + +The string @var{message} should not begin with a capital letter when +it follows a program name and/or file name. Also, it should not end +with a period. + +Error messages from interactive programs, and other messages such as +usage messages, should start with a capital letter. But they should not +end with a period. + +@node User Interfaces +@section Standards for Command Line Interfaces + +Please don't make the behavior of a utility depend on the name used +to invoke it. It is useful sometimes to make a link to a utility +with a different name, and that should not change what it does. + +Instead, use a run time option or a compilation switch or both +to select among the alternate behaviors. + +Likewise, please don't make the behavior of the program depend on the +type of output device it is used with. Device independence is an +important principle of the system's design; do not compromise it +merely to save someone from typing an option now and then. + +If you think one behavior is most useful when the output is to a +terminal, and another is most useful when the output is a file or a +pipe, then it is usually best to make the default behavior the one that +is useful with output to a terminal, and have an option for the other +behavior. + +Compatibility requires certain programs to depend on the type of output +device. It would be disastrous if @code{ls} or @code{sh} did not do so +in the way all users expect. In some of these cases, we supplement the +program with a preferred alternate version that does not depend on the +output device type. For example, we provide a @code{dir} program much +like @code{ls} except that its default output format is always +multi-column format. + +It is a good idea to follow the @sc{POSIX} guidelines for the +command-line options of a program. The easiest way to do this is to use +@code{getopt} to parse them. Note that the GNU version of @code{getopt} +will normally permit options anywhere among the arguments unless the +special argument @samp{--} is used. This is not what @sc{POSIX} +specifies; it is a GNU extension. + +Please define long-named options that are equivalent to the +single-letter Unix-style options. We hope to make GNU more user +friendly this way. This is easy to do with the GNU function +@code{getopt_long}. + +One of the advantages of long-named options is that they can be +consistent from program to program. For example, users should be able +to expect the ``verbose'' option of any GNU program which has one, to be +spelled precisely @samp{--verbose}. To achieve this uniformity, look at +the table of common long-option names when you choose the option names +for your program (@pxref{Option Table}). + +It is usually a good idea for file names given as ordinary arguments to +be input files only; any output files would be specified using options +(preferably @samp{-o} or @samp{--output}). Even if you allow an output +file name as an ordinary argument for compatibility, try to provide an +option as another way to specify it. This will lead to more consistency +among GNU utilities, and fewer idiosyncracies for users to remember. + +All programs should support two standard options: @samp{--version} +and @samp{--help}. + +@table @code +@item --version +This option should direct the program to information about its name, +version, origin and legal status, all on standard output, and then exit +successfully. Other options and arguments should be ignored once this +is seen, and the program should not perform its normal function. + +The first line is meant to be easy for a program to parse; the version +number proper starts after the last space. In addition, it contains +the canonical name for this program, in this format: + +@example +GNU Emacs 19.30 +@end example + +@noindent +The program's name should be a constant string; @emph{don't} compute it +from @code{argv[0]}. The idea is to state the standard or canonical +name for the program, not its file name. There are other ways to find +out the precise file name where a command is found in @code{PATH}. + +If the program is a subsidiary part of a larger package, mention the +package name in parentheses, like this: + +@example +emacsserver (GNU Emacs) 19.30 +@end example + +@noindent +If the package has a version number which is different from this +program's version number, you can mention the package version number +just before the close-parenthesis. + +If you @strong{need} to mention the version numbers of libraries which +are distributed separately from the package which contains this program, +you can do so by printing an additional line of version info for each +library you want to mention. Use the same format for these lines as for +the first line. + +Please do not mention all of the libraries that the program uses ``just +for completeness''---that would produce a lot of unhelpful clutter. +Please mention library version numbers only if you find in practice that +they are very important to you in debugging. + +The following line, after the version number line or lines, should be a +copyright notice. If more than one copyright notice is called for, put +each on a separate line. + +Next should follow a brief statement that the program is free software, +and that users are free to copy and change it on certain conditions. If +the program is covered by the GNU GPL, say so here. Also mention that +there is no warranty, to the extent permitted by law. + +It is ok to finish the output with a list of the major authors of the +program, as a way of giving credit. + +Here's an example of output that follows these rules: + +@smallexample +GNU Emacs 19.34.5 +Copyright (C) 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc. +GNU Emacs comes with NO WARRANTY, +to the extent permitted by law. +You may redistribute copies of GNU Emacs +under the terms of the GNU General Public License. +For more information about these matters, +see the files named COPYING. +@end smallexample + +You should adapt this to your program, of course, filling in the proper +year, copyright holder, name of program, and the references to +distribution terms, and changing the rest of the wording as necessary. + +This copyright notice only needs to mention the most recent year in +which changes were made---there's no need to list the years for previous +versions' changes. You don't have to mention the name of the program in +these notices, if that is inconvenient, since it appeared in the first +line. + +@item --help +This option should output brief documentation for how to invoke the +program, on standard output, then exit successfully. Other options and +arguments should be ignored once this is seen, and the program should +not perform its normal function. + +Near the end of the @samp{--help} option's output there should be a line +that says where to mail bug reports. It should have this format: + +@example +Report bugs to @var{mailing-address}. +@end example +@end table + +@node Option Table +@section Table of Long Options + +Here is a table of long options used by GNU programs. It is surely +incomplete, but we aim to list all the options that a new program might +want to be compatible with. If you use names not already in the table, +please send @email{gnu@@gnu.org} a list of them, with their +meanings, so we can update the table. + +@c Please leave newlines between items in this table; it's much easier +@c to update when it isn't completely squashed together and unreadable. +@c When there is more than one short option for a long option name, put +@c a semicolon between the lists of the programs that use them, not a +@c period. --friedman + +@table @samp +@item after-date +@samp{-N} in @code{tar}. + +@item all +@samp{-a} in @code{du}, @code{ls}, @code{nm}, @code{stty}, @code{uname}, +and @code{unexpand}. + +@item all-text +@samp{-a} in @code{diff}. + +@item almost-all +@samp{-A} in @code{ls}. + +@item append +@samp{-a} in @code{etags}, @code{tee}, @code{time}; +@samp{-r} in @code{tar}. + +@item archive +@samp{-a} in @code{cp}. + +@item archive-name +@samp{-n} in @code{shar}. + +@item arglength +@samp{-l} in @code{m4}. + +@item ascii +@samp{-a} in @code{diff}. + +@item assign +@samp{-v} in @code{gawk}. + +@item assume-new +@samp{-W} in Make. + +@item assume-old +@samp{-o} in Make. + +@item auto-check +@samp{-a} in @code{recode}. + +@item auto-pager +@samp{-a} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item auto-reference +@samp{-A} in @code{ptx}. + +@item avoid-wraps +@samp{-n} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item backward-search +@samp{-B} in @code{ctags}. + +@item basename +@samp{-f} in @code{shar}. + +@item batch +Used in GDB. + +@item baud +Used in GDB. + +@item before +@samp{-b} in @code{tac}. + +@item binary +@samp{-b} in @code{cpio} and @code{diff}. + +@item bits-per-code +@samp{-b} in @code{shar}. + +@item block-size +Used in @code{cpio} and @code{tar}. + +@item blocks +@samp{-b} in @code{head} and @code{tail}. + +@item break-file +@samp{-b} in @code{ptx}. + +@item brief +Used in various programs to make output shorter. + +@item bytes +@samp{-c} in @code{head}, @code{split}, and @code{tail}. + +@item c@t{++} +@samp{-C} in @code{etags}. + +@item catenate +@samp{-A} in @code{tar}. + +@item cd +Used in various programs to specify the directory to use. + +@item changes +@samp{-c} in @code{chgrp} and @code{chown}. + +@item classify +@samp{-F} in @code{ls}. + +@item colons +@samp{-c} in @code{recode}. + +@item command +@samp{-c} in @code{su}; +@samp{-x} in GDB. + +@item compare +@samp{-d} in @code{tar}. + +@item compat +Used in @code{gawk}. + +@item compress +@samp{-Z} in @code{tar} and @code{shar}. + +@item concatenate +@samp{-A} in @code{tar}. + +@item confirmation +@samp{-w} in @code{tar}. + +@item context +Used in @code{diff}. + +@item copyleft +@samp{-W copyleft} in @code{gawk}. + +@item copyright +@samp{-C} in @code{ptx}, @code{recode}, and @code{wdiff}; +@samp{-W copyright} in @code{gawk}. + +@item core +Used in GDB. + +@item count +@samp{-q} in @code{who}. + +@item count-links +@samp{-l} in @code{du}. + +@item create +Used in @code{tar} and @code{cpio}. + +@item cut-mark +@samp{-c} in @code{shar}. + +@item cxref +@samp{-x} in @code{ctags}. + +@item date +@samp{-d} in @code{touch}. + +@item debug +@samp{-d} in Make and @code{m4}; +@samp{-t} in Bison. + +@item define +@samp{-D} in @code{m4}. + +@item defines +@samp{-d} in Bison and @code{ctags}. + +@item delete +@samp{-D} in @code{tar}. + +@item dereference +@samp{-L} in @code{chgrp}, @code{chown}, @code{cpio}, @code{du}, +@code{ls}, and @code{tar}. + +@item dereference-args +@samp{-D} in @code{du}. + +@item diacritics +@samp{-d} in @code{recode}. + +@item dictionary-order +@samp{-d} in @code{look}. + +@item diff +@samp{-d} in @code{tar}. + +@item digits +@samp{-n} in @code{csplit}. + +@item directory +Specify the directory to use, in various programs. In @code{ls}, it +means to show directories themselves rather than their contents. In +@code{rm} and @code{ln}, it means to not treat links to directories +specially. + +@item discard-all +@samp{-x} in @code{strip}. + +@item discard-locals +@samp{-X} in @code{strip}. + +@item dry-run +@samp{-n} in Make. + +@item ed +@samp{-e} in @code{diff}. + +@item elide-empty-files +@samp{-z} in @code{csplit}. + +@item end-delete +@samp{-x} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item end-insert +@samp{-z} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item entire-new-file +@samp{-N} in @code{diff}. + +@item environment-overrides +@samp{-e} in Make. + +@item eof +@samp{-e} in @code{xargs}. + +@item epoch +Used in GDB. + +@item error-limit +Used in @code{makeinfo}. + +@item error-output +@samp{-o} in @code{m4}. + +@item escape +@samp{-b} in @code{ls}. + +@item exclude-from +@samp{-X} in @code{tar}. + +@item exec +Used in GDB. + +@item exit +@samp{-x} in @code{xargs}. + +@item exit-0 +@samp{-e} in @code{unshar}. + +@item expand-tabs +@samp{-t} in @code{diff}. + +@item expression +@samp{-e} in @code{sed}. + +@item extern-only +@samp{-g} in @code{nm}. + +@item extract +@samp{-i} in @code{cpio}; +@samp{-x} in @code{tar}. + +@item faces +@samp{-f} in @code{finger}. + +@item fast +@samp{-f} in @code{su}. + +@item fatal-warnings +@samp{-E} in @code{m4}. + +@item file +@samp{-f} in @code{info}, @code{gawk}, Make, @code{mt}, and @code{tar}; +@samp{-n} in @code{sed}; +@samp{-r} in @code{touch}. + +@item field-separator +@samp{-F} in @code{gawk}. + +@item file-prefix +@samp{-b} in Bison. + +@item file-type +@samp{-F} in @code{ls}. + +@item files-from +@samp{-T} in @code{tar}. + +@item fill-column +Used in @code{makeinfo}. + +@item flag-truncation +@samp{-F} in @code{ptx}. + +@item fixed-output-files +@samp{-y} in Bison. + +@item follow +@samp{-f} in @code{tail}. + +@item footnote-style +Used in @code{makeinfo}. + +@item force +@samp{-f} in @code{cp}, @code{ln}, @code{mv}, and @code{rm}. + +@item force-prefix +@samp{-F} in @code{shar}. + +@item format +Used in @code{ls}, @code{time}, and @code{ptx}. + +@item freeze-state +@samp{-F} in @code{m4}. + +@item fullname +Used in GDB. + +@item gap-size +@samp{-g} in @code{ptx}. + +@item get +@samp{-x} in @code{tar}. + +@item graphic +@samp{-i} in @code{ul}. + +@item graphics +@samp{-g} in @code{recode}. + +@item group +@samp{-g} in @code{install}. + +@item gzip +@samp{-z} in @code{tar} and @code{shar}. + +@item hashsize +@samp{-H} in @code{m4}. + +@item header +@samp{-h} in @code{objdump} and @code{recode} + +@item heading +@samp{-H} in @code{who}. + +@item help +Used to ask for brief usage information. + +@item here-delimiter +@samp{-d} in @code{shar}. + +@item hide-control-chars +@samp{-q} in @code{ls}. + +@item idle +@samp{-u} in @code{who}. + +@item ifdef +@samp{-D} in @code{diff}. + +@item ignore +@samp{-I} in @code{ls}; +@samp{-x} in @code{recode}. + +@item ignore-all-space +@samp{-w} in @code{diff}. + +@item ignore-backups +@samp{-B} in @code{ls}. + +@item ignore-blank-lines +@samp{-B} in @code{diff}. + +@item ignore-case +@samp{-f} in @code{look} and @code{ptx}; +@samp{-i} in @code{diff} and @code{wdiff}. + +@item ignore-errors +@samp{-i} in Make. + +@item ignore-file +@samp{-i} in @code{ptx}. + +@item ignore-indentation +@samp{-I} in @code{etags}. + +@item ignore-init-file +@samp{-f} in Oleo. + +@item ignore-interrupts +@samp{-i} in @code{tee}. + +@item ignore-matching-lines +@samp{-I} in @code{diff}. + +@item ignore-space-change +@samp{-b} in @code{diff}. + +@item ignore-zeros +@samp{-i} in @code{tar}. + +@item include +@samp{-i} in @code{etags}; +@samp{-I} in @code{m4}. + +@item include-dir +@samp{-I} in Make. + +@item incremental +@samp{-G} in @code{tar}. + +@item info +@samp{-i}, @samp{-l}, and @samp{-m} in Finger. + +@item initial +@samp{-i} in @code{expand}. + +@item initial-tab +@samp{-T} in @code{diff}. + +@item inode +@samp{-i} in @code{ls}. + +@item interactive +@samp{-i} in @code{cp}, @code{ln}, @code{mv}, @code{rm}; +@samp{-e} in @code{m4}; +@samp{-p} in @code{xargs}; +@samp{-w} in @code{tar}. + +@item intermix-type +@samp{-p} in @code{shar}. + +@item jobs +@samp{-j} in Make. + +@item just-print +@samp{-n} in Make. + +@item keep-going +@samp{-k} in Make. + +@item keep-files +@samp{-k} in @code{csplit}. + +@item kilobytes +@samp{-k} in @code{du} and @code{ls}. + +@item language +@samp{-l} in @code{etags}. + +@item less-mode +@samp{-l} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item level-for-gzip +@samp{-g} in @code{shar}. + +@item line-bytes +@samp{-C} in @code{split}. + +@item lines +Used in @code{split}, @code{head}, and @code{tail}. + +@item link +@samp{-l} in @code{cpio}. + +@item lint +@itemx lint-old +Used in @code{gawk}. + +@item list +@samp{-t} in @code{cpio}; +@samp{-l} in @code{recode}. + +@item list +@samp{-t} in @code{tar}. + +@item literal +@samp{-N} in @code{ls}. + +@item load-average +@samp{-l} in Make. + +@item login +Used in @code{su}. + +@item machine +No listing of which programs already use this; +someone should check to +see if any actually do, and tell @email{gnu@@gnu.org}. + +@item macro-name +@samp{-M} in @code{ptx}. + +@item mail +@samp{-m} in @code{hello} and @code{uname}. + +@item make-directories +@samp{-d} in @code{cpio}. + +@item makefile +@samp{-f} in Make. + +@item mapped +Used in GDB. + +@item max-args +@samp{-n} in @code{xargs}. + +@item max-chars +@samp{-n} in @code{xargs}. + +@item max-lines +@samp{-l} in @code{xargs}. + +@item max-load +@samp{-l} in Make. + +@item max-procs +@samp{-P} in @code{xargs}. + +@item mesg +@samp{-T} in @code{who}. + +@item message +@samp{-T} in @code{who}. + +@item minimal +@samp{-d} in @code{diff}. + +@item mixed-uuencode +@samp{-M} in @code{shar}. + +@item mode +@samp{-m} in @code{install}, @code{mkdir}, and @code{mkfifo}. + +@item modification-time +@samp{-m} in @code{tar}. + +@item multi-volume +@samp{-M} in @code{tar}. + +@item name-prefix +@samp{-a} in Bison. + +@item nesting-limit +@samp{-L} in @code{m4}. + +@item net-headers +@samp{-a} in @code{shar}. + +@item new-file +@samp{-W} in Make. + +@item no-builtin-rules +@samp{-r} in Make. + +@item no-character-count +@samp{-w} in @code{shar}. + +@item no-check-existing +@samp{-x} in @code{shar}. + +@item no-common +@samp{-3} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item no-create +@samp{-c} in @code{touch}. + +@item no-defines +@samp{-D} in @code{etags}. + +@item no-deleted +@samp{-1} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item no-dereference +@samp{-d} in @code{cp}. + +@item no-inserted +@samp{-2} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item no-keep-going +@samp{-S} in Make. + +@item no-lines +@samp{-l} in Bison. + +@item no-piping +@samp{-P} in @code{shar}. + +@item no-prof +@samp{-e} in @code{gprof}. + +@item no-regex +@samp{-R} in @code{etags}. + +@item no-sort +@samp{-p} in @code{nm}. + +@item no-split +Used in @code{makeinfo}. + +@item no-static +@samp{-a} in @code{gprof}. + +@item no-time +@samp{-E} in @code{gprof}. + +@item no-timestamp +@samp{-m} in @code{shar}. + +@item no-validate +Used in @code{makeinfo}. + +@item no-wait +Used in @code{emacsclient}. + +@item no-warn +Used in various programs to inhibit warnings. + +@item node +@samp{-n} in @code{info}. + +@item nodename +@samp{-n} in @code{uname}. + +@item nonmatching +@samp{-f} in @code{cpio}. + +@item nstuff +@samp{-n} in @code{objdump}. + +@item null +@samp{-0} in @code{xargs}. + +@item number +@samp{-n} in @code{cat}. + +@item number-nonblank +@samp{-b} in @code{cat}. + +@item numeric-sort +@samp{-n} in @code{nm}. + +@item numeric-uid-gid +@samp{-n} in @code{cpio} and @code{ls}. + +@item nx +Used in GDB. + +@item old-archive +@samp{-o} in @code{tar}. + +@item old-file +@samp{-o} in Make. + +@item one-file-system +@samp{-l} in @code{tar}, @code{cp}, and @code{du}. + +@item only-file +@samp{-o} in @code{ptx}. + +@item only-prof +@samp{-f} in @code{gprof}. + +@item only-time +@samp{-F} in @code{gprof}. + +@item output +In various programs, specify the output file name. + +@item output-prefix +@samp{-o} in @code{shar}. + +@item override +@samp{-o} in @code{rm}. + +@item overwrite +@samp{-c} in @code{unshar}. + +@item owner +@samp{-o} in @code{install}. + +@item paginate +@samp{-l} in @code{diff}. + +@item paragraph-indent +Used in @code{makeinfo}. + +@item parents +@samp{-p} in @code{mkdir} and @code{rmdir}. + +@item pass-all +@samp{-p} in @code{ul}. + +@item pass-through +@samp{-p} in @code{cpio}. + +@item port +@samp{-P} in @code{finger}. + +@item portability +@samp{-c} in @code{cpio} and @code{tar}. + +@item posix +Used in @code{gawk}. + +@item prefix-builtins +@samp{-P} in @code{m4}. + +@item prefix +@samp{-f} in @code{csplit}. + +@item preserve +Used in @code{tar} and @code{cp}. + +@item preserve-environment +@samp{-p} in @code{su}. + +@item preserve-modification-time +@samp{-m} in @code{cpio}. + +@item preserve-order +@samp{-s} in @code{tar}. + +@item preserve-permissions +@samp{-p} in @code{tar}. + +@item print +@samp{-l} in @code{diff}. + +@item print-chars +@samp{-L} in @code{cmp}. + +@item print-data-base +@samp{-p} in Make. + +@item print-directory +@samp{-w} in Make. + +@item print-file-name +@samp{-o} in @code{nm}. + +@item print-symdefs +@samp{-s} in @code{nm}. + +@item printer +@samp{-p} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item prompt +@samp{-p} in @code{ed}. + +@item query-user +@samp{-X} in @code{shar}. + +@item question +@samp{-q} in Make. + +@item quiet +Used in many programs to inhibit the usual output. @strong{Note:} every +program accepting @samp{--quiet} should accept @samp{--silent} as a +synonym. + +@item quiet-unshar +@samp{-Q} in @code{shar} + +@item quote-name +@samp{-Q} in @code{ls}. + +@item rcs +@samp{-n} in @code{diff}. + +@item re-interval +Used in @code{gawk}. + +@item read-full-blocks +@samp{-B} in @code{tar}. + +@item readnow +Used in GDB. + +@item recon +@samp{-n} in Make. + +@item record-number +@samp{-R} in @code{tar}. + +@item recursive +Used in @code{chgrp}, @code{chown}, @code{cp}, @code{ls}, @code{diff}, +and @code{rm}. + +@item reference-limit +Used in @code{makeinfo}. + +@item references +@samp{-r} in @code{ptx}. + +@item regex +@samp{-r} in @code{tac} and @code{etags}. + +@item release +@samp{-r} in @code{uname}. + +@item reload-state +@samp{-R} in @code{m4}. + +@item relocation +@samp{-r} in @code{objdump}. + +@item rename +@samp{-r} in @code{cpio}. + +@item replace +@samp{-i} in @code{xargs}. + +@item report-identical-files +@samp{-s} in @code{diff}. + +@item reset-access-time +@samp{-a} in @code{cpio}. + +@item reverse +@samp{-r} in @code{ls} and @code{nm}. + +@item reversed-ed +@samp{-f} in @code{diff}. + +@item right-side-defs +@samp{-R} in @code{ptx}. + +@item same-order +@samp{-s} in @code{tar}. + +@item same-permissions +@samp{-p} in @code{tar}. + +@item save +@samp{-g} in @code{stty}. + +@item se +Used in GDB. + +@item sentence-regexp +@samp{-S} in @code{ptx}. + +@item separate-dirs +@samp{-S} in @code{du}. + +@item separator +@samp{-s} in @code{tac}. + +@item sequence +Used by @code{recode} to chose files or pipes for sequencing passes. + +@item shell +@samp{-s} in @code{su}. + +@item show-all +@samp{-A} in @code{cat}. + +@item show-c-function +@samp{-p} in @code{diff}. + +@item show-ends +@samp{-E} in @code{cat}. + +@item show-function-line +@samp{-F} in @code{diff}. + +@item show-tabs +@samp{-T} in @code{cat}. + +@item silent +Used in many programs to inhibit the usual output. +@strong{Note:} every program accepting +@samp{--silent} should accept @samp{--quiet} as a synonym. + +@item size +@samp{-s} in @code{ls}. + +@item sort +Used in @code{ls}. + +@item source +@samp{-W source} in @code{gawk}. + +@item sparse +@samp{-S} in @code{tar}. + +@item speed-large-files +@samp{-H} in @code{diff}. + +@item split-at +@samp{-E} in @code{unshar}. + +@item split-size-limit +@samp{-L} in @code{shar}. + +@item squeeze-blank +@samp{-s} in @code{cat}. + +@item start-delete +@samp{-w} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item start-insert +@samp{-y} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item starting-file +Used in @code{tar} and @code{diff} to specify which file within +a directory to start processing with. + +@item statistics +@samp{-s} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item stdin-file-list +@samp{-S} in @code{shar}. + +@item stop +@samp{-S} in Make. + +@item strict +@samp{-s} in @code{recode}. + +@item strip +@samp{-s} in @code{install}. + +@item strip-all +@samp{-s} in @code{strip}. + +@item strip-debug +@samp{-S} in @code{strip}. + +@item submitter +@samp{-s} in @code{shar}. + +@item suffix +@samp{-S} in @code{cp}, @code{ln}, @code{mv}. + +@item suffix-format +@samp{-b} in @code{csplit}. + +@item sum +@samp{-s} in @code{gprof}. + +@item summarize +@samp{-s} in @code{du}. + +@item symbolic +@samp{-s} in @code{ln}. + +@item symbols +Used in GDB and @code{objdump}. + +@item synclines +@samp{-s} in @code{m4}. + +@item sysname +@samp{-s} in @code{uname}. + +@item tabs +@samp{-t} in @code{expand} and @code{unexpand}. + +@item tabsize +@samp{-T} in @code{ls}. + +@item terminal +@samp{-T} in @code{tput} and @code{ul}. +@samp{-t} in @code{wdiff}. + +@item text +@samp{-a} in @code{diff}. + +@item text-files +@samp{-T} in @code{shar}. + +@item time +Used in @code{ls} and @code{touch}. + +@item to-stdout +@samp{-O} in @code{tar}. + +@item total +@samp{-c} in @code{du}. + +@item touch +@samp{-t} in Make, @code{ranlib}, and @code{recode}. + +@item trace +@samp{-t} in @code{m4}. + +@item traditional +@samp{-t} in @code{hello}; +@samp{-W traditional} in @code{gawk}; +@samp{-G} in @code{ed}, @code{m4}, and @code{ptx}. + +@item tty +Used in GDB. + +@item typedefs +@samp{-t} in @code{ctags}. + +@item typedefs-and-c++ +@samp{-T} in @code{ctags}. + +@item typeset-mode +@samp{-t} in @code{ptx}. + +@item uncompress +@samp{-z} in @code{tar}. + +@item unconditional +@samp{-u} in @code{cpio}. + +@item undefine +@samp{-U} in @code{m4}. + +@item undefined-only +@samp{-u} in @code{nm}. + +@item update +@samp{-u} in @code{cp}, @code{ctags}, @code{mv}, @code{tar}. + +@item usage +Used in @code{gawk}; same as @samp{--help}. + +@item uuencode +@samp{-B} in @code{shar}. + +@item vanilla-operation +@samp{-V} in @code{shar}. + +@item verbose +Print more information about progress. Many programs support this. + +@item verify +@samp{-W} in @code{tar}. + +@item version +Print the version number. + +@item version-control +@samp{-V} in @code{cp}, @code{ln}, @code{mv}. + +@item vgrind +@samp{-v} in @code{ctags}. + +@item volume +@samp{-V} in @code{tar}. + +@item what-if +@samp{-W} in Make. + +@item whole-size-limit +@samp{-l} in @code{shar}. + +@item width +@samp{-w} in @code{ls} and @code{ptx}. + +@item word-regexp +@samp{-W} in @code{ptx}. + +@item writable +@samp{-T} in @code{who}. + +@item zeros +@samp{-z} in @code{gprof}. +@end table + +@node Memory Usage +@section Memory Usage + +If it typically uses just a few meg of memory, don't bother making any +effort to reduce memory usage. For example, if it is impractical for +other reasons to operate on files more than a few meg long, it is +reasonable to read entire input files into core to operate on them. + +However, for programs such as @code{cat} or @code{tail}, that can +usefully operate on very large files, it is important to avoid using a +technique that would artificially limit the size of files it can handle. +If a program works by lines and could be applied to arbitrary +user-supplied input files, it should keep only a line in memory, because +this is not very hard and users will want to be able to operate on input +files that are bigger than will fit in core all at once. + +If your program creates complicated data structures, just make them in +core and give a fatal error if @code{malloc} returns zero. + +@node Writing C +@chapter Making The Best Use of C + +This @value{CHAPTER} provides advice on how best to use the C language +when writing GNU software. + +@menu +* Formatting:: Formatting Your Source Code +* Comments:: Commenting Your Work +* Syntactic Conventions:: Clean Use of C Constructs +* Names:: Naming Variables and Functions +* System Portability:: Portability between different operating systems +* CPU Portability:: Supporting the range of CPU types +* System Functions:: Portability and ``standard'' library functions +* Internationalization:: Techniques for internationalization +* Mmap:: How you can safely use @code{mmap}. +@end menu + +@node Formatting +@section Formatting Your Source Code + +It is important to put the open-brace that starts the body of a C +function in column zero, and avoid putting any other open-brace or +open-parenthesis or open-bracket in column zero. Several tools look +for open-braces in column zero to find the beginnings of C functions. +These tools will not work on code not formatted that way. + +It is also important for function definitions to start the name of the +function in column zero. This helps people to search for function +definitions, and may also help certain tools recognize them. Thus, +the proper format is this: + +@example +static char * +concat (s1, s2) /* Name starts in column zero here */ + char *s1, *s2; +@{ /* Open brace in column zero here */ + @dots{} +@} +@end example + +@noindent +or, if you want to use @sc{ansi} C, format the definition like this: + +@example +static char * +concat (char *s1, char *s2) +@{ + @dots{} +@} +@end example + +In @sc{ansi} C, if the arguments don't fit nicely on one line, +split it like this: + +@example +int +lots_of_args (int an_integer, long a_long, short a_short, + double a_double, float a_float) +@dots{} +@end example + +For the body of the function, we prefer code formatted like this: + +@example +if (x < foo (y, z)) + haha = bar[4] + 5; +else + @{ + while (z) + @{ + haha += foo (z, z); + z--; + @} + return ++x + bar (); + @} +@end example + +We find it easier to read a program when it has spaces before the +open-parentheses and after the commas. Especially after the commas. + +When you split an expression into multiple lines, split it +before an operator, not after one. Here is the right way: + +@example +if (foo_this_is_long && bar > win (x, y, z) + && remaining_condition) +@end example + +Try to avoid having two operators of different precedence at the same +level of indentation. For example, don't write this: + +@example +mode = (inmode[j] == VOIDmode + || GET_MODE_SIZE (outmode[j]) > GET_MODE_SIZE (inmode[j]) + ? outmode[j] : inmode[j]); +@end example + +Instead, use extra parentheses so that the indentation shows the nesting: + +@example +mode = ((inmode[j] == VOIDmode + || (GET_MODE_SIZE (outmode[j]) > GET_MODE_SIZE (inmode[j]))) + ? outmode[j] : inmode[j]); +@end example + +Insert extra parentheses so that Emacs will indent the code properly. +For example, the following indentation looks nice if you do it by hand, +but Emacs would mess it up: + +@example +v = rup->ru_utime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_utime.tv_usec/1000 + + rup->ru_stime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_stime.tv_usec/1000; +@end example + +But adding a set of parentheses solves the problem: + +@example +v = (rup->ru_utime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_utime.tv_usec/1000 + + rup->ru_stime.tv_sec*1000 + rup->ru_stime.tv_usec/1000); +@end example + +Format do-while statements like this: + +@example +do + @{ + a = foo (a); + @} +while (a > 0); +@end example + +Please use formfeed characters (control-L) to divide the program into +pages at logical places (but not within a function). It does not matter +just how long the pages are, since they do not have to fit on a printed +page. The formfeeds should appear alone on lines by themselves. + + +@node Comments +@section Commenting Your Work + +Every program should start with a comment saying briefly what it is for. +Example: @samp{fmt - filter for simple filling of text}. + +Please write the comments in a GNU program in English, because English +is the one language that nearly all programmers in all countries can +read. If you do not write English well, please write comments in +English as well as you can, then ask other people to help rewrite them. +If you can't write comments in English, please find someone to work with +you and translate your comments into English. + +Please put a comment on each function saying what the function does, +what sorts of arguments it gets, and what the possible values of +arguments mean and are used for. It is not necessary to duplicate in +words the meaning of the C argument declarations, if a C type is being +used in its customary fashion. If there is anything nonstandard about +its use (such as an argument of type @code{char *} which is really the +address of the second character of a string, not the first), or any +possible values that would not work the way one would expect (such as, +that strings containing newlines are not guaranteed to work), be sure +to say so. + +Also explain the significance of the return value, if there is one. + +Please put two spaces after the end of a sentence in your comments, so +that the Emacs sentence commands will work. Also, please write +complete sentences and capitalize the first word. If a lower-case +identifier comes at the beginning of a sentence, don't capitalize it! +Changing the spelling makes it a different identifier. If you don't +like starting a sentence with a lower case letter, write the sentence +differently (e.g., ``The identifier lower-case is @dots{}''). + +The comment on a function is much clearer if you use the argument +names to speak about the argument values. The variable name itself +should be lower case, but write it in upper case when you are speaking +about the value rather than the variable itself. Thus, ``the inode +number NODE_NUM'' rather than ``an inode''. + +There is usually no purpose in restating the name of the function in +the comment before it, because the reader can see that for himself. +There might be an exception when the comment is so long that the function +itself would be off the bottom of the screen. + +There should be a comment on each static variable as well, like this: + +@example +/* Nonzero means truncate lines in the display; + zero means continue them. */ +int truncate_lines; +@end example + +Every @samp{#endif} should have a comment, except in the case of short +conditionals (just a few lines) that are not nested. The comment should +state the condition of the conditional that is ending, @emph{including +its sense}. @samp{#else} should have a comment describing the condition +@emph{and sense} of the code that follows. For example: + +@example +@group +#ifdef foo + @dots{} +#else /* not foo */ + @dots{} +#endif /* not foo */ +@end group +@group +#ifdef foo + @dots{} +#endif /* foo */ +@end group +@end example + +@noindent +but, by contrast, write the comments this way for a @samp{#ifndef}: + +@example +@group +#ifndef foo + @dots{} +#else /* foo */ + @dots{} +#endif /* foo */ +@end group +@group +#ifndef foo + @dots{} +#endif /* not foo */ +@end group +@end example + +@node Syntactic Conventions +@section Clean Use of C Constructs + +Please explicitly declare all arguments to functions. +Don't omit them just because they are @code{int}s. + +Declarations of external functions and functions to appear later in the +source file should all go in one place near the beginning of the file +(somewhere before the first function definition in the file), or else +should go in a header file. Don't put @code{extern} declarations inside +functions. + +It used to be common practice to use the same local variables (with +names like @code{tem}) over and over for different values within one +function. Instead of doing this, it is better declare a separate local +variable for each distinct purpose, and give it a name which is +meaningful. This not only makes programs easier to understand, it also +facilitates optimization by good compilers. You can also move the +declaration of each local variable into the smallest scope that includes +all its uses. This makes the program even cleaner. + +Don't use local variables or parameters that shadow global identifiers. + +Don't declare multiple variables in one declaration that spans lines. +Start a new declaration on each line, instead. For example, instead +of this: + +@example +@group +int foo, + bar; +@end group +@end example + +@noindent +write either this: + +@example +int foo, bar; +@end example + +@noindent +or this: + +@example +int foo; +int bar; +@end example + +@noindent +(If they are global variables, each should have a comment preceding it +anyway.) + +When you have an @code{if}-@code{else} statement nested in another +@code{if} statement, always put braces around the @code{if}-@code{else}. +Thus, never write like this: + +@example +if (foo) + if (bar) + win (); + else + lose (); +@end example + +@noindent +always like this: + +@example +if (foo) + @{ + if (bar) + win (); + else + lose (); + @} +@end example + +If you have an @code{if} statement nested inside of an @code{else} +statement, either write @code{else if} on one line, like this, + +@example +if (foo) + @dots{} +else if (bar) + @dots{} +@end example + +@noindent +with its @code{then}-part indented like the preceding @code{then}-part, +or write the nested @code{if} within braces like this: + +@example +if (foo) + @dots{} +else + @{ + if (bar) + @dots{} + @} +@end example + +Don't declare both a structure tag and variables or typedefs in the +same declaration. Instead, declare the structure tag separately +and then use it to declare the variables or typedefs. + +Try to avoid assignments inside @code{if}-conditions. For example, +don't write this: + +@example +if ((foo = (char *) malloc (sizeof *foo)) == 0) + fatal ("virtual memory exhausted"); +@end example + +@noindent +instead, write this: + +@example +foo = (char *) malloc (sizeof *foo); +if (foo == 0) + fatal ("virtual memory exhausted"); +@end example + +Don't make the program ugly to placate @code{lint}. Please don't insert any +casts to @code{void}. Zero without a cast is perfectly fine as a null +pointer constant, except when calling a varargs function. + +@node Names +@section Naming Variables and Functions + +The names of global variables and functions in a program serve as +comments of a sort. So don't choose terse names---instead, look for +names that give useful information about the meaning of the variable or +function. In a GNU program, names should be English, like other +comments. + +Local variable names can be shorter, because they are used only within +one context, where (presumably) comments explain their purpose. + +Please use underscores to separate words in a name, so that the Emacs +word commands can be useful within them. Stick to lower case; reserve +upper case for macros and @code{enum} constants, and for name-prefixes +that follow a uniform convention. + +For example, you should use names like @code{ignore_space_change_flag}; +don't use names like @code{iCantReadThis}. + +Variables that indicate whether command-line options have been +specified should be named after the meaning of the option, not after +the option-letter. A comment should state both the exact meaning of +the option and its letter. For example, + +@example +@group +/* Ignore changes in horizontal whitespace (-b). */ +int ignore_space_change_flag; +@end group +@end example + +When you want to define names with constant integer values, use +@code{enum} rather than @samp{#define}. GDB knows about enumeration +constants. + +Use file names of 14 characters or less, to avoid creating gratuitous +problems on older System V systems. You can use the program +@code{doschk} to test for this. @code{doschk} also tests for potential +name conflicts if the files were loaded onto an MS-DOS file +system---something you may or may not care about. + +@node System Portability +@section Portability between System Types + +In the Unix world, ``portability'' refers to porting to different Unix +versions. For a GNU program, this kind of portability is desirable, but +not paramount. + +The primary purpose of GNU software is to run on top of the GNU kernel, +compiled with the GNU C compiler, on various types of @sc{cpu}. The +amount and kinds of variation among GNU systems on different @sc{cpu}s +will be comparable to the variation among Linux-based GNU systems or +among BSD systems today. So the kinds of portability that are absolutely +necessary are quite limited. + +But many users do run GNU software on non-GNU Unix or Unix-like systems. +So supporting a variety of Unix-like systems is desirable, although not +paramount. + +The easiest way to achieve portability to most Unix-like systems is to +use Autoconf. It's unlikely that your program needs to know more +information about the host platform than Autoconf can provide, simply +because most of the programs that need such knowledge have already been +written. + +Avoid using the format of semi-internal data bases (e.g., directories) +when there is a higher-level alternative (@code{readdir}). + +As for systems that are not like Unix, such as MSDOS, Windows, the +Macintosh, VMS, and MVS, supporting them is usually so much work that it +is better if you don't. + +The planned GNU kernel is not finished yet, but you can tell which +facilities it will provide by looking at the GNU C Library Manual. The +GNU kernel is based on Mach, so the features of Mach will also be +available. However, if you use Mach features, you'll probably have +trouble debugging your program today. + +@node CPU Portability +@section Portability between @sc{cpu}s + +Even GNU systems will differ because of differences among @sc{cpu} +types---for example, difference in byte ordering and alignment +requirements. It is absolutely essential to handle these differences. +However, don't make any effort to cater to the possibility that an +@code{int} will be less than 32 bits. We don't support 16-bit machines +in GNU. + +Don't assume that the address of an @code{int} object is also the +address of its least-significant byte. This is false on big-endian +machines. Thus, don't make the following mistake: + +@example +int c; +@dots{} +while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) + write(file_descriptor, &c, 1); +@end example + +When calling functions, you need not worry about the difference between +pointers of various types, or between pointers and integers. On most +machines, there's no difference anyway. As for the few machines where +there is a difference, all of them support @sc{ansi} C, so you can use +prototypes (conditionalized to be active only in @sc{ansi} C) to make +the code work on those systems. + +In certain cases, it is ok to pass integer and pointer arguments +indiscriminately to the same function, and use no prototype on any +system. For example, many GNU programs have error-reporting functions +that pass their arguments along to @code{printf} and friends: + +@example +error (s, a1, a2, a3) + char *s; + int a1, a2, a3; +@{ + fprintf (stderr, "error: "); + fprintf (stderr, s, a1, a2, a3); +@} +@end example + +@noindent +In practice, this works on all machines, and it is much simpler than any +``correct'' alternative. Be sure @emph{not} to use a prototype +for such functions. + +However, avoid casting pointers to integers unless you really need to. +These assumptions really reduce portability, and in most programs they +are easy to avoid. In the cases where casting pointers to integers is +essential---such as, a Lisp interpreter which stores type information as +well as an address in one word---it is ok to do so, but you'll have to +make explicit provisions to handle different word sizes. + +@node System Functions +@section Calling System Functions + +C implementations differ substantially. @sc{ansi} C reduces but does not +eliminate the incompatibilities; meanwhile, many users wish to compile +GNU software with pre-@sc{ansi} compilers. This chapter gives +recommendations for how to use the more or less standard C library +functions to avoid unnecessary loss of portability. + +@itemize @bullet +@item +Don't use the value of @code{sprintf}. It returns the number of +characters written on some systems, but not on all systems. + +@item +@code{main} should be declared to return type @code{int}. It should +terminate either by calling @code{exit} or by returning the integer +status code; make sure it cannot ever return an undefined value. + +@item +Don't declare system functions explicitly. + +Almost any declaration for a system function is wrong on some system. +To minimize conflicts, leave it to the system header files to declare +system functions. If the headers don't declare a function, let it +remain undeclared. + +While it may seem unclean to use a function without declaring it, in +practice this works fine for most system library functions on the +systems where this really happens; thus, the disadvantage is only +theoretical. By contrast, actual declarations have frequently caused +actual conflicts. + +@item +If you must declare a system function, don't specify the argument types. +Use an old-style declaration, not an @sc{ansi} prototype. The more you +specify about the function, the more likely a conflict. + +@item +In particular, don't unconditionally declare @code{malloc} or +@code{realloc}. + +Most GNU programs use those functions just once, in functions +conventionally named @code{xmalloc} and @code{xrealloc}. These +functions call @code{malloc} and @code{realloc}, respectively, and +check the results. + +Because @code{xmalloc} and @code{xrealloc} are defined in your program, +you can declare them in other files without any risk of type conflict. + +On most systems, @code{int} is the same length as a pointer; thus, the +calls to @code{malloc} and @code{realloc} work fine. For the few +exceptional systems (mostly 64-bit machines), you can use +@strong{conditionalized} declarations of @code{malloc} and +@code{realloc}---or put these declarations in configuration files +specific to those systems. + +@item +The string functions require special treatment. Some Unix systems have +a header file @file{string.h}; others have @file{strings.h}. Neither +file name is portable. There are two things you can do: use Autoconf to +figure out which file to include, or don't include either file. + +@item +If you don't include either strings file, you can't get declarations for +the string functions from the header file in the usual way. + +That causes less of a problem than you might think. The newer @sc{ansi} +string functions should be avoided anyway because many systems still +don't support them. The string functions you can use are these: + +@example +strcpy strncpy strcat strncat +strlen strcmp strncmp +strchr strrchr +@end example + +The copy and concatenate functions work fine without a declaration as +long as you don't use their values. Using their values without a +declaration fails on systems where the width of a pointer differs from +the width of @code{int}, and perhaps in other cases. It is trivial to +avoid using their values, so do that. + +The compare functions and @code{strlen} work fine without a declaration +on most systems, possibly all the ones that GNU software runs on. +You may find it necessary to declare them @strong{conditionally} on a +few systems. + +The search functions must be declared to return @code{char *}. Luckily, +there is no variation in the data type they return. But there is +variation in their names. Some systems give these functions the names +@code{index} and @code{rindex}; other systems use the names +@code{strchr} and @code{strrchr}. Some systems support both pairs of +names, but neither pair works on all systems. + +You should pick a single pair of names and use it throughout your +program. (Nowadays, it is better to choose @code{strchr} and +@code{strrchr} for new programs, since those are the standard @sc{ansi} +names.) Declare both of those names as functions returning @code{char +*}. On systems which don't support those names, define them as macros +in terms of the other pair. For example, here is what to put at the +beginning of your file (or in a header) if you want to use the names +@code{strchr} and @code{strrchr} throughout: + +@example +#ifndef HAVE_STRCHR +#define strchr index +#endif +#ifndef HAVE_STRRCHR +#define strrchr rindex +#endif + +char *strchr (); +char *strrchr (); +@end example +@end itemize + +Here we assume that @code{HAVE_STRCHR} and @code{HAVE_STRRCHR} are +macros defined in systems where the corresponding functions exist. +One way to get them properly defined is to use Autoconf. + +@node Internationalization +@section Internationalization + +GNU has a library called GNU gettext that makes it easy to translate the +messages in a program into various languages. You should use this +library in every program. Use English for the messages as they appear +in the program, and let gettext provide the way to translate them into +other languages. + +Using GNU gettext involves putting a call to the @code{gettext} macro +around each string that might need translation---like this: + +@example +printf (gettext ("Processing file `%s'...")); +@end example + +@noindent +This permits GNU gettext to replace the string @code{"Processing file +`%s'..."} with a translated version. + +Once a program uses gettext, please make a point of writing calls to +@code{gettext} when you add new strings that call for translation. + +Using GNU gettext in a package involves specifying a @dfn{text domain +name} for the package. The text domain name is used to separate the +translations for this package from the translations for other packages. +Normally, the text domain name should be the same as the name of the +package---for example, @samp{fileutils} for the GNU file utilities. + +To enable gettext to work well, avoid writing code that makes +assumptions about the structure of words or sentences. When you want +the precise text of a sentence to vary depending on the data, use two or +more alternative string constants each containing a complete sentences, +rather than inserting conditionalized words or phrases into a single +sentence framework. + +Here is an example of what not to do: + +@example +printf ("%d file%s processed", nfiles, + nfiles != 1 ? "s" : ""); +@end example + +@noindent +The problem with that example is that it assumes that plurals are made +by adding `s'. If you apply gettext to the format string, like this, + +@example +printf (gettext ("%d file%s processed"), nfiles, + nfiles != 1 ? "s" : ""); +@end example + +@noindent +the message can use different words, but it will still be forced to use +`s' for the plural. Here is a better way: + +@example +printf ((nfiles != 1 ? "%d files processed" + : "%d file processed"), + nfiles); +@end example + +@noindent +This way, you can apply gettext to each of the two strings +independently: + +@example +printf ((nfiles != 1 ? gettext ("%d files processed") + : gettext ("%d file processed")), + nfiles); +@end example + +@noindent +This can be any method of forming the plural of the word for ``file'', and +also handles languages that require agreement in the word for +``processed''. + +A similar problem appears at the level of sentence structure with this +code: + +@example +printf ("# Implicit rule search has%s been done.\n", + f->tried_implicit ? "" : " not"); +@end example + +@noindent +Adding @code{gettext} calls to this code cannot give correct results for +all languages, because negation in some languages requires adding words +at more than one place in the sentence. By contrast, adding +@code{gettext} calls does the job straightfowardly if the code starts +out like this: + +@example +printf (f->tried_implicit + ? "# Implicit rule search has been done.\n", + : "# Implicit rule search has not been done.\n"); +@end example + +@node Mmap +@section Mmap + +Don't assume that @code{mmap} either works on all files or fails +for all files. It may work on some files and fail on others. + +The proper way to use @code{mmap} is to try it on the specific file for +which you want to use it---and if @code{mmap} doesn't work, fall back on +doing the job in another way using @code{read} and @code{write}. + +The reason this precaution is needed is that the GNU kernel (the HURD) +provides a user-extensible file system, in which there can be many +different kinds of ``ordinary files.'' Many of them support +@code{mmap}, but some do not. It is important to make programs handle +all these kinds of files. + +@node Documentation +@chapter Documenting Programs + +@menu +* GNU Manuals:: Writing proper manuals. +* Manual Structure Details:: Specific structure conventions. +* NEWS File:: NEWS files supplement manuals. +* Change Logs:: Recording Changes +* Man Pages:: Man pages are secondary. +* Reading other Manuals:: How far you can go in learning + from other manuals. +@end menu + +@node GNU Manuals +@section GNU Manuals + +The preferred way to document part of the GNU system is to write a +manual in the Texinfo formatting language. See the Texinfo manual, +either the hardcopy, or the on-line version available through +@code{info} or the Emacs Info subsystem (@kbd{C-h i}). + +Programmers often find it most natural to structure the documentation +following the structure of the implementation, which they know. But +this structure is not necessarily good for explaining how to use the +program; it may be irrelevant and confusing for a user. + +At every level, from the sentences in a paragraph to the grouping of +topics into separate manuals, the right way to structure documentation +is according to the concepts and questions that a user will have in mind +when reading it. Sometimes this structure of ideas matches the +structure of the implementation of the software being documented---but +often they are different. Often the most important part of learning to +write good documentation is learning to notice when you are structuring +the documentation like the implementation, and think about better +alternatives. + +For example, each program in the GNU system probably ought to be +documented in one manual; but this does not mean each program should +have its own manual. That would be following the structure of the +implementation, rather than the structure that helps the user +understand. + +Instead, each manual should cover a coherent @emph{topic}. For example, +instead of a manual for @code{diff} and a manual for @code{diff3}, we +have one manual for ``comparison of files'' which covers both of those +programs, as well as @code{cmp}. By documenting these programs +together, we can make the whole subject clearer. + +The manual which discusses a program should document all of the +program's command-line options and all of its commands. It should give +examples of their use. But don't organize the manual as a list of +features. Instead, organize it logically, by subtopics. Address the +questions that a user will ask when thinking about the job that the +program does. + +In general, a GNU manual should serve both as tutorial and reference. +It should be set up for convenient access to each topic through Info, +and for reading straight through (appendixes aside). A GNU manual +should give a good introduction to a beginner reading through from the +start, and should also provide all the details that hackers want. + +That is not as hard as it first sounds. Arrange each chapter as a +logical breakdown of its topic, but order the sections, and write their +text, so that reading the chapter straight through makes sense. Do +likewise when structuring the book into chapters, and when structuring a +section into paragraphs. The watchword is, @emph{at each point, address +the most fundamental and important issue raised by the preceding text.} + +If necessary, add extra chapters at the beginning of the manual which +are purely tutorial and cover the basics of the subject. These provide +the framework for a beginner to understand the rest of the manual. The +Bison manual provides a good example of how to do this. + +Don't use Unix man pages as a model for how to write GNU documentation; +most of them are terse, badly structured, and give inadequate +explanation of the underlying concepts. (There are, of course +exceptions.) Also Unix man pages use a particular format which is +different from what we use in GNU manuals. + +Please do not use the term ``pathname'' that is used in Unix +documentation; use ``file name'' (two words) instead. We use the term +``path'' only for search paths, which are lists of file names. + +Please do not use the term ``illegal'' to refer to erroneous input to a +computer program. Please use ``invalid'' for this, and reserve the term +``illegal'' for violations of law. + +@node Manual Structure Details +@section Manual Structure Details + +The title page of the manual should state the version of the programs or +packages documented in the manual. The Top node of the manual should +also contain this information. If the manual is changing more +frequently than or independent of the program, also state a version +number for the manual in both of these places. + +Each program documented in the manual should should have a node named +@samp{@var{program} Invocation} or @samp{Invoking @var{program}}. This +node (together with its subnodes, if any) should describe the program's +command line arguments and how to run it (the sort of information people +would look in a man page for). Start with an @samp{@@example} +containing a template for all the options and arguments that the program +uses. + +Alternatively, put a menu item in some menu whose item name fits one of +the above patterns. This identifies the node which that item points to +as the node for this purpose, regardless of the node's actual name. + +There will be automatic features for specifying a program name and +quickly reading just this part of its manual. + +If one manual describes several programs, it should have such a node for +each program described. + +@node NEWS File +@section The NEWS File + +In addition to its manual, the package should have a file named +@file{NEWS} which contains a list of user-visible changes worth +mentioning. In each new release, add items to the front of the file and +identify the version they pertain to. Don't discard old items; leave +them in the file after the newer items. This way, a user upgrading from +any previous version can see what is new. + +If the @file{NEWS} file gets very long, move some of the older items +into a file named @file{ONEWS} and put a note at the end referring the +user to that file. + +@node Change Logs +@section Change Logs + +Keep a change log to describe all the changes made to program source +files. The purpose of this is so that people investigating bugs in the +future will know about the changes that might have introduced the bug. +Often a new bug can be found by looking at what was recently changed. +More importantly, change logs can help you eliminate conceptual +inconsistencies between different parts of a program, by giving you a +history of how the conflicting concepts arose and who they came from. + +@menu +* Change Log Concepts:: +* Style of Change Logs:: +* Simple Changes:: +* Conditional Changes:: +@end menu + +@node Change Log Concepts +@subsection Change Log Concepts + +You can think of the change log as a conceptual ``undo list'' which +explains how earlier versions were different from the current version. +People can see the current version; they don't need the change log +to tell them what is in it. What they want from a change log is a +clear explanation of how the earlier version differed. + +The change log file is normally called @file{ChangeLog} and covers an +entire directory. Each directory can have its own change log, or a +directory can use the change log of its parent directory--it's up to +you. + +Another alternative is to record change log information with a version +control system such as RCS or CVS. This can be converted automatically +to a @file{ChangeLog} file. + +There's no need to describe the full purpose of the changes or how they +work together. If you think that a change calls for explanation, you're +probably right. Please do explain it---but please put the explanation +in comments in the code, where people will see it whenever they see the +code. For example, ``New function'' is enough for the change log when +you add a function, because there should be a comment before the +function definition to explain what it does. + +However, sometimes it is useful to write one line to describe the +overall purpose of a batch of changes. + +The easiest way to add an entry to @file{ChangeLog} is with the Emacs +command @kbd{M-x add-change-log-entry}. An entry should have an +asterisk, the name of the changed file, and then in parentheses the name +of the changed functions, variables or whatever, followed by a colon. +Then describe the changes you made to that function or variable. + +@node Style of Change Logs +@subsection Style of Change Logs + +Here are some examples of change log entries: + +@example +* register.el (insert-register): Return nil. +(jump-to-register): Likewise. + +* sort.el (sort-subr): Return nil. + +* tex-mode.el (tex-bibtex-file, tex-file, tex-region): +Restart the tex shell if process is gone or stopped. +(tex-shell-running): New function. + +* expr.c (store_one_arg): Round size up for move_block_to_reg. +(expand_call): Round up when emitting USE insns. +* stmt.c (assign_parms): Round size up for move_block_from_reg. +@end example + +It's important to name the changed function or variable in full. Don't +abbreviate function or variable names, and don't combine them. +Subsequent maintainers will often search for a function name to find all +the change log entries that pertain to it; if you abbreviate the name, +they won't find it when they search. + +For example, some people are tempted to abbreviate groups of function +names by writing @samp{* register.el (@{insert,jump-to@}-register)}; +this is not a good idea, since searching for @code{jump-to-register} or +@code{insert-register} would not find that entry. + +Separate unrelated change log entries with blank lines. When two +entries represent parts of the same change, so that they work together, +then don't put blank lines between them. Then you can omit the file +name and the asterisk when successive entries are in the same file. + +@node Simple Changes +@subsection Simple Changes + +Certain simple kinds of changes don't need much detail in the change +log. + +When you change the calling sequence of a function in a simple fashion, +and you change all the callers of the function, there is no need to make +individual entries for all the callers that you changed. Just write in +the entry for the function being called, ``All callers changed.'' + +@example +* keyboard.c (Fcommand_execute): New arg SPECIAL. +All callers changed. +@end example + +When you change just comments or doc strings, it is enough to write an +entry for the file, without mentioning the functions. Just ``Doc +fixes'' is enough for the change log. + +There's no need to make change log entries for documentation files. +This is because documentation is not susceptible to bugs that are hard +to fix. Documentation does not consist of parts that must interact in a +precisely engineered fashion. To correct an error, you need not know +the history of the erroneous passage; it is enough to compare what the +documentation says with the way the program actually works. + +@node Conditional Changes +@subsection Conditional Changes + +C programs often contain compile-time @code{#if} conditionals. Many +changes are conditional; sometimes you add a new definition which is +entirely contained in a conditional. It is very useful to indicate in +the change log the conditions for which the change applies. + +Our convention for indicating conditional changes is to use square +brackets around the name of the condition. + +Here is a simple example, describing a change which is conditional but +does not have a function or entity name associated with it: + +@example +* xterm.c [SOLARIS2]: Include string.h. +@end example + +Here is an entry describing a new definition which is entirely +conditional. This new definition for the macro @code{FRAME_WINDOW_P} is +used only when @code{HAVE_X_WINDOWS} is defined: + +@example +* frame.h [HAVE_X_WINDOWS] (FRAME_WINDOW_P): Macro defined. +@end example + +Here is an entry for a change within the function @code{init_display}, +whose definition as a whole is unconditional, but the changes themselves +are contained in a @samp{#ifdef HAVE_LIBNCURSES} conditional: + +@example +* dispnew.c (init_display) [HAVE_LIBNCURSES]: If X, call tgetent. +@end example + +Here is an entry for a change that takes affect only when +a certain macro is @emph{not} defined: + +@example +(gethostname) [!HAVE_SOCKETS]: Replace with winsock version. +@end example + +@node Man Pages +@section Man Pages + +In the GNU project, man pages are secondary. It is not necessary or +expected for every GNU program to have a man page, but some of them do. +It's your choice whether to include a man page in your program. + +When you make this decision, consider that supporting a man page +requires continual effort each time the program is changed. The time +you spend on the man page is time taken away from more useful work. + +For a simple program which changes little, updating the man page may be +a small job. Then there is little reason not to include a man page, if +you have one. + +For a large program that changes a great deal, updating a man page may +be a substantial burden. If a user offers to donate a man page, you may +find this gift costly to accept. It may be better to refuse the man +page unless the same person agrees to take full responsibility for +maintaining it---so that you can wash your hands of it entirely. If +this volunteer later ceases to do the job, then don't feel obliged to +pick it up yourself; it may be better to withdraw the man page from the +distribution until someone else agrees to update it. + +When a program changes only a little, you may feel that the +discrepancies are small enough that the man page remains useful without +updating. If so, put a prominent note near the beginning of the man +page explaining that you don't maintain it and that the Texinfo manual +is more authoritative. The note should say how to access the Texinfo +documentation. + +@node Reading other Manuals +@section Reading other Manuals + +There may be non-free books or documentation files that describe the +program you are documenting. + +It is ok to use these documents for reference, just as the author of a +new algebra textbook can read other books on algebra. A large portion +of any non-fiction book consists of facts, in this case facts about how +a certain program works, and these facts are necessarily the same for +everyone who writes about the subject. But be careful not to copy your +outline structure, wording, tables or examples from preexisting non-free +documentation. Copying from free documentation may be ok; please check +with the FSF about the individual case. + +@node Managing Releases +@chapter The Release Process + +Making a release is more than just bundling up your source files in a +tar file and putting it up for FTP. You should set up your software so +that it can be configured to run on a variety of systems. Your Makefile +should conform to the GNU standards described below, and your directory +layout should also conform to the standards discussed below. Doing so +makes it easy to include your package into the larger framework of +all GNU software. + +@menu +* Configuration:: How Configuration Should Work +* Makefile Conventions:: Makefile Conventions +* Releases:: Making Releases +@end menu + +@node Configuration +@section How Configuration Should Work + +Each GNU distribution should come with a shell script named +@code{configure}. This script is given arguments which describe the +kind of machine and system you want to compile the program for. + +The @code{configure} script must record the configuration options so +that they affect compilation. + +One way to do this is to make a link from a standard name such as +@file{config.h} to the proper configuration file for the chosen system. +If you use this technique, the distribution should @emph{not} contain a +file named @file{config.h}. This is so that people won't be able to +build the program without configuring it first. + +Another thing that @code{configure} can do is to edit the Makefile. If +you do this, the distribution should @emph{not} contain a file named +@file{Makefile}. Instead, it should include a file @file{Makefile.in} which +contains the input used for editing. Once again, this is so that people +won't be able to build the program without configuring it first. + +If @code{configure} does write the @file{Makefile}, then @file{Makefile} +should have a target named @file{Makefile} which causes @code{configure} +to be rerun, setting up the same configuration that was set up last +time. The files that @code{configure} reads should be listed as +dependencies of @file{Makefile}. + +All the files which are output from the @code{configure} script should +have comments at the beginning explaining that they were generated +automatically using @code{configure}. This is so that users won't think +of trying to edit them by hand. + +The @code{configure} script should write a file named @file{config.status} +which describes which configuration options were specified when the +program was last configured. This file should be a shell script which, +if run, will recreate the same configuration. + +The @code{configure} script should accept an option of the form +@samp{--srcdir=@var{dirname}} to specify the directory where sources are found +(if it is not the current directory). This makes it possible to build +the program in a separate directory, so that the actual source directory +is not modified. + +If the user does not specify @samp{--srcdir}, then @code{configure} should +check both @file{.} and @file{..} to see if it can find the sources. If +it finds the sources in one of these places, it should use them from +there. Otherwise, it should report that it cannot find the sources, and +should exit with nonzero status. + +Usually the easy way to support @samp{--srcdir} is by editing a +definition of @code{VPATH} into the Makefile. Some rules may need to +refer explicitly to the specified source directory. To make this +possible, @code{configure} can add to the Makefile a variable named +@code{srcdir} whose value is precisely the specified directory. + +The @code{configure} script should also take an argument which specifies the +type of system to build the program for. This argument should look like +this: + +@example +@var{cpu}-@var{company}-@var{system} +@end example + +For example, a Sun 3 might be @samp{m68k-sun-sunos4.1}. + +The @code{configure} script needs to be able to decode all plausible +alternatives for how to describe a machine. Thus, @samp{sun3-sunos4.1} +would be a valid alias. For many programs, @samp{vax-dec-ultrix} would +be an alias for @samp{vax-dec-bsd}, simply because the differences +between Ultrix and @sc{BSD} are rarely noticeable, but a few programs +might need to distinguish them. +@c Real 4.4BSD now runs on some Suns. + +There is a shell script called @file{config.sub} that you can use +as a subroutine to validate system types and canonicalize aliases. + +Other options are permitted to specify in more detail the software +or hardware present on the machine, and include or exclude optional +parts of the package: + +@table @samp +@item --enable-@var{feature}@r{[}=@var{parameter}@r{]} +Configure the package to build and install an optional user-level +facility called @var{feature}. This allows users to choose which +optional features to include. Giving an optional @var{parameter} of +@samp{no} should omit @var{feature}, if it is built by default. + +No @samp{--enable} option should @strong{ever} cause one feature to +replace another. No @samp{--enable} option should ever substitute one +useful behavior for another useful behavior. The only proper use for +@samp{--enable} is for questions of whether to build part of the program +or exclude it. + +@item --with-@var{package} +@c @r{[}=@var{parameter}@r{]} +The package @var{package} will be installed, so configure this package +to work with @var{package}. + +@c Giving an optional @var{parameter} of +@c @samp{no} should omit @var{package}, if it is used by default. + +Possible values of @var{package} include +@samp{gnu-as} (or @samp{gas}), @samp{gnu-ld}, @samp{gnu-libc}, +@samp{gdb}, +@samp{x}, +and +@samp{x-toolkit}. + +Do not use a @samp{--with} option to specify the file name to use to +find certain files. That is outside the scope of what @samp{--with} +options are for. + +@item --nfp +The target machine has no floating point processor. + +@item --gas +The target machine assembler is GAS, the GNU assembler. +This is obsolete; users should use @samp{--with-gnu-as} instead. + +@item --x +The target machine has the X Window System installed. +This is obsolete; users should use @samp{--with-x} instead. +@end table + +All @code{configure} scripts should accept all of these ``detail'' +options, whether or not they make any difference to the particular +package at hand. In particular, they should accept any option that +starts with @samp{--with-} or @samp{--enable-}. This is so users will +be able to configure an entire GNU source tree at once with a single set +of options. + +You will note that the categories @samp{--with-} and @samp{--enable-} +are narrow: they @strong{do not} provide a place for any sort of option +you might think of. That is deliberate. We want to limit the possible +configuration options in GNU software. We do not want GNU programs to +have idiosyncratic configuration options. + +Packages that perform part of the compilation process may support cross-compilation. +In such a case, the host and target machines for the program may be +different. The @code{configure} script should normally treat the +specified type of system as both the host and the target, thus producing +a program which works for the same type of machine that it runs on. + +The way to build a cross-compiler, cross-assembler, or what have you, is +to specify the option @samp{--host=@var{hosttype}} when running +@code{configure}. This specifies the host system without changing the +type of target system. The syntax for @var{hosttype} is the same as +described above. + +Bootstrapping a cross-compiler requires compiling it on a machine other +than the host it will run on. Compilation packages accept a +configuration option @samp{--build=@var{hosttype}} for specifying the +configuration on which you will compile them, in case that is different +from the host. + +Programs for which cross-operation is not meaningful need not accept the +@samp{--host} option, because configuring an entire operating system for +cross-operation is not a meaningful thing. + +Some programs have ways of configuring themselves automatically. If +your program is set up to do this, your @code{configure} script can simply +ignore most of its arguments. + +@comment The makefile standards are in a separate file that is also +@comment included by make.texinfo. Done by roland@gnu.ai.mit.edu on 1/6/93. +@comment For this document, turn chapters into sections, etc. +@lowersections +@include make-stds.texi +@raisesections + +@node Releases +@section Making Releases + +Package the distribution of @code{Foo version 69.96} up in a gzipped tar +file with the name @file{foo-69.96.tar.gz}. It should unpack into a +subdirectory named @file{foo-69.96}. + +Building and installing the program should never modify any of the files +contained in the distribution. This means that all the files that form +part of the program in any way must be classified into @dfn{source +files} and @dfn{non-source files}. Source files are written by humans +and never changed automatically; non-source files are produced from +source files by programs under the control of the Makefile. + +Naturally, all the source files must be in the distribution. It is okay +to include non-source files in the distribution, provided they are +up-to-date and machine-independent, so that building the distribution +normally will never modify them. We commonly include non-source files +produced by Bison, @code{lex}, @TeX{}, and @code{makeinfo}; this helps avoid +unnecessary dependencies between our distributions, so that users can +install whichever packages they want to install. + +Non-source files that might actually be modified by building and +installing the program should @strong{never} be included in the +distribution. So if you do distribute non-source files, always make +sure they are up to date when you make a new distribution. + +Make sure that the directory into which the distribution unpacks (as +well as any subdirectories) are all world-writable (octal mode 777). +This is so that old versions of @code{tar} which preserve the +ownership and permissions of the files from the tar archive will be +able to extract all the files even if the user is unprivileged. + +Make sure that all the files in the distribution are world-readable. + +Make sure that no file name in the distribution is more than 14 +characters long. Likewise, no file created by building the program +should have a name longer than 14 characters. The reason for this is +that some systems adhere to a foolish interpretation of the POSIX +standard, and refuse to open a longer name, rather than truncating as +they did in the past. + +Don't include any symbolic links in the distribution itself. If the tar +file contains symbolic links, then people cannot even unpack it on +systems that don't support symbolic links. Also, don't use multiple +names for one file in different directories, because certain file +systems cannot handle this and that prevents unpacking the +distribution. + +Try to make sure that all the file names will be unique on MS-DOS. A +name on MS-DOS consists of up to 8 characters, optionally followed by a +period and up to three characters. MS-DOS will truncate extra +characters both before and after the period. Thus, +@file{foobarhacker.c} and @file{foobarhacker.o} are not ambiguous; they +are truncated to @file{foobarha.c} and @file{foobarha.o}, which are +distinct. + +Include in your distribution a copy of the @file{texinfo.tex} you used +to test print any @file{*.texinfo} or @file{*.texi} files. + +Likewise, if your program uses small GNU software packages like regex, +getopt, obstack, or termcap, include them in the distribution file. +Leaving them out would make the distribution file a little smaller at +the expense of possible inconvenience to a user who doesn't know what +other files to get. + +@contents + +@bye +Local variables: +update-date-leading-regexp: "@c This date is automagically updated when you save this file:\n@set lastupdate " +update-date-trailing-regexp: "" +eval: (load "/gd/gnuorg/update-date.el") +eval: (add-hook 'write-file-hooks 'update-date) +End: |